Narya: A proof assistant for higher-dimensional type theory

Narya is eventually intended to be a proof assistant implementing Multi-Modal, Multi-Directional, Higher/Parametric/Displayed Observational Type Theory, but a formal type theory combining all those adjectives has not yet been specified. At the moment, Narya implements a normalization-by-evaluation algorithm and typechecker for an observational-style theory with Id/Bridge types satisfying parametricity, of variable arity and internality. There is a parser with user-definable mixfix notations, and user-definable record types, inductive datatypes and type families, and coinductive codatatypes, with functions definable by matching and comatching case trees, import and export and separate compilation, the ability to leave holes and solve them later, and a ProofGeneral interaction mode.

Narya is very much a work in progress. Expect breaking changes, including even in fundamental aspects of the syntax. (I try to make breaking changes as GitHub pull requests, so if you watch the repository you should at least get notified of them.) But on the other side of the coin, feedback on anything and everything is welcome. In particular, please report all crashes, bugs, unexpected errors, and other unexpected, surprising, or unintuitive behavior, either in GitHub issues or by direct email.

Installation

From source

There is no distribution yet, so you have to compile Narya yourself. This requires OCaml version 5.2.1 (or later) and various libraries. After installing any version of OCaml and its package manager Opam, you can install Narya with its dependencies as follows:

opam switch create 5.2.1
opam install dune

cd narya
dune build narya.opam
opam install . --deps-only
dune build bin/narya.exe
dune runtest
dune install

This will make the executable narya available in a directory such as ~/.opam/5.2.1/bin, which should be in your PATH. Alternatively, instead of dune install you can also run the executable directly from the narya/ directory with dune exec narya. In this case, to pass flags to the executable, put them after a --. For instance, dune exec narya -- test.ny -i loads the file test.ny and then enters interactive mode.

ProofGeneral (Emacs) mode

The recommended mode of use of Narya is with its ProofGeneral Emacs mode (for further description of this, see below). To install Narya's ProofGeneral mode, first install Emacs and ProofGeneral and find the ProofGeneral installation directory, which may be something like $HOME/.emacs.d/elpa/proof-general-XXXXXXXX-XXXX. In this directory, create a subdirectory called narya and copy (or, better, symlink) the files in the proofgeneral directory of the Narya repository into that subdirectory. Then edit the file proof-site.el in the subdirectory generic of the ProofGeneral installation directory and add a line containing (narya "Narya" "ny") to the list of proof assistants in the definition of the variable proof-assistant-table-default. Then restart Emacs.

Note that you will have to repeat these steps whenever the Narya ProofGeneral mode is updated (unless you symlinked the files instead of copying them) and also whenever ProofGeneral is updated. Note also that you can only use ProofGeneral with one proof assistant per Emacs session: if you want to switch between (say) Narya and Coq, you need to restart Emacs or open a new instance of it. These appear to be fundamental restrictions of ProofGeneral (if you know how to get around them, please let me know); although once Narya and its ProofGeneral mode are more stable we can probably petition to be added to the main ProofGeneral distribution.

In-browser version

There is also a version of Narya that compiles to JavaScript and runs in a browser, called jsNarya. Instructions for compiling and running jsNarya locally can be found in js/README, but a recent version of it can also be accessed directly at https://mikeshulman.github.io/jsnarya, not requiring installing or compiling anything locally. However, jsNarya is currently limited to the interactive mode with one startup file (see below).

Top level interface

Command-line flags

The Narya executable accepts at least the following command-line flags.

Execution behavior

-interactive or -i: Enter interactive mode (see below)
-exec STRING or -e STRING: Execute a string argument (see below)
-no-check: Don't typecheck and execute code (only parse it)
-source-only: Load all files from source, ignoring any compiled versions

Formatting output

-verbose or -v: Show verbose messages
-unicode and -ascii: Display and reformat code using Unicode (default) or ASCII
-noncompact and -compact: Select reformatting mode
-reformat: Display reformatted code on stdout after parsing

Controlling parametricity

These options are discussed further below.

-arity N: Set the arity of parametricity to N (1 ≤ N ≤ 9)
-direction X: Set the symbol and names for reflexivity
-internal and -external: Set whether parametricity is internal (default) or external
-discreteness: Enable strictly parametrically discrete types
-dtt: Poor man's dTT mode (-arity 1 -direction d -external)

Execution

When the Narya executable is run, it loads all the files given on its command line and any strings supplied on the command line with -e. As usual, the special filename - refers to standard input. Files and strings are loaded in the order they are given on the command line; all files must have the extension .ny. Lastly, if -i was given anywhere on the command line, Narya enters interactive mode.

In interactive mode, commands typed by the user are executed as they are entered. Since many commands span multiple lines, Narya waits for a blank line before parsing and executing the command(s) being entered. Make sure to enter a blank line before starting a new command; interactive commands must be entered and executed one at a time. The result of the command is printed (more verbosely than is usual when loading a file) and then the user can enter more commands. Type Control+D to exit interactive mode, or enter the command quit. In addition, in interactive mode you can enter a term instead of a command, and Narya will assume you mean to echo it (see below).

Commands

In a file, conventionally each command begins on a new line, but this is not technically necessary since each command begins with a keyword that has no other meaning. (Similarly, a command-line -e string may contain multiple commands as long as whitespace separates them.) Indentation is not significant, but a standard reformatter (like ocamlformat) is planned so that the default will be to enforce a uniform indentation style. (Experimental output of this reformatter-in-progress is available with the -reformat command-line option.) The available commands in a file or -e string are the following.

def NAME [PARAMS] [: TYPE] ≔ TERM [and ...]

Define a global constant called NAME having type TYPE and value TERM. Thus NAME must be a valid identifier (see below) with no current definition in scope, while TYPE must parse and typecheck as a type, and TERM must parse and typecheck at type TYPE. If TYPE is omitted, then TERM must synthesize a type (see below). In addition, if TYPE is specified, then TERM can also be a case tree or canonical type declaration (see below). The optional PARAMS is a list of parameters of the form (x : PTY), or more generally (x y z : PTY), with the effect that the actual type of the constant NAME is the Π-type of TYPE (or the synthesized type of TERM) over these parameters, and its value is the λ-abstraction of TERM over them. That is, def foo (x:A) : B ≔ M is equivalent to def foo : A → B ≔ x ↦ M. Finally, a family of constants can be defined mutually by using the and keyword to introduce the second and later ones (see below).
axiom NAME [PARAMS] : TYPE

Assert a global constant called NAME having type TYPE, without any definition (an axiom). Parameters and names are treated as for def.
echo TERM

Normalize TERM and print its value and its type to standard output. Note that TERM must synthesize a type (see below); if it is a checking term you must ascribe it. In interactive mode, if you enter a term instead of a command, Narya assumes you mean to echo that term.
synth TERM

Like echo, but does not normalize the term, only computes its type.
```
show hole HOLE
show holes
```
Display the context and type of a specific open hole number HOLE, or of all the open holes (see below).
notation [TIGHTNESS] NAME : […] PATTERN […] ≔ HEAD ARGUMENTS

Declare a new mixfix notation. Every notation must have a NAME, which is an identifier like the name of a constant, and a TIGHTNESS unless it is outfix (see below). The PATTERN of a notation is discussed below. The value of a notation consists of a HEAD, which is either a previously defined constant or a datatype constructor (see below), followed by the ARGUMENTS that must consist of exactly the variables appearing in the pattern, once each, in some order.
```
import "FILE"
import "FILE" | MOD
```
Add the extension .ny to the double-quoted string FILE and import the file at that location (either absolute or relative to the location of the current file), with the optional modifier MOD applied to its namespace (see below). The disk file must have the .ny extension, whereas the string given to import must not have it; this is because in the future the string given to import will be a more general "library identifier" in the bantorra framework.
```
import NAME
import NAME | MOD
```
Import the namespace rooted at NAME into the current top-level namespace, with the optional modifier MOD applied to it first.
```
export "FILE"
export "FILE" | MOD
export NAME
export NAME | MOD
```
Same as above, but also export the new names to other files that import this one.
section NAME ≔

Begin a section named NAME, which must be a valid identifier. All ordinary commands are valid inside a section (including other section commands).
end

End the section that was most recently opened and not yet closed. All the constants that were in the export namespace of that section (i.e. those defined with def and axiom or imported from elsewhere with export) are prefixed by the name of that section and merged into the previous namespace. (See namespaces, below.)
quit

Terminate execution of the current compilation unit. Whenever this command is found, loading of the current file or command-line string ceases, just as if the file or string had ended right there. Execution then continues as usual with any file that imported the current one, with the next file or string on the command line, or with interactive mode if that was requested. The command quit in interactive mode exits the program (you can also exit interactive mode by typing Control+D).

In interactive mode, the following additional commands are also available. (However, they are mostly intended for use in the ProofGeneral backend, see below.)

solve HOLE ≔ TERM

Fill hole number HOLE with the term TERM (see below).
undo N

Undo the last N commands that modify the global state, rewinding to a previous situation. This includes all commands except echo, synth, show, and solve: those commands are skipped over when undoing. (Of course solve does modify the global state, but it is not undoable because it doesn't affect the "processed position" in ProofGeneral.) The command undo itself is also not "undoable" and there is no "redo": after a command is undone, it is lost permanently from Narya's memory (although you can press Up-arrow or Meta+P to find it in the interactive history and re-execute it). Following an undo with another undo will just undo additional commands: undo 1 followed by undo 1 is the same as undo 2.

ProofGeneral mode

ProofGeneral is a generic Emacs interface for proof assistants, perhaps best known for its use with Coq. Narya comes with a basic ProofGeneral mode. Narya does not yet have a true interactive proof mode, which ProofGeneral is designed for, but it is still useful for progressive processing of commands in a file. In addition, the Narya ProofGeneral mode is enhanced with commands for creating, inspecting, and filling holes, similar to Agda's Emacs mode.

Once Narya's ProofGeneral mode is installed as described above, it should start automatically when you open a file with the .ny extension. When ProofGeneral mode is active, there is some initial segment of the buffer (which starts out empty) that has been processed (sent to Narya) and is highlighted with a background color (usually blue). The unprocessed part of the buffer can be freely edited, and as you complete new commands you can process them as well one by one. You can also undo or "retract" processed commands, removing them from the processed region. If you edit any part of the processed region (except for a comment), it will automatically be retracted up to the point where you are editing.

In addition to the main window displaying your source file, there will be two other windows in split-screen labeled "goals" and "response". The "response" window displays Narya's informational and error messages. The "goals" window displays the contexts and types of holes whenever relevant.

The most useful ProofGeneral key commands for Narya are the following. (As usual in Emacs, C-a means hold down the Control key and press a, then release both. Similarly, C-M-a means hold down both Control and Meta (usually the same as "Alt") and press a, then release them all.)

C-c C-n : Process the next unprocessed command. Since Narya has no command-terminating string, the "next command" is interpreted as continuing until the following command keyword or until the end of the buffer.
C-c C-u : Retract the last processed command.
C-c RET : Move the processed/unprocessed boundary to (approximately) the current cursor location, processing or retracting as necessary.
C-c C-b : Process the entire buffer.
C-c C-r : Retract the entire buffer.
C-c C-. : Move the cursor to the end of the processed region.
C-M-a : Move the cursor to the beginning of the command it is inside.
C-M-e : Move the cursor to the end of the command it is inside.
C-c C-v : Read a "state-preserving" command from the minibuffer and execute it, displaying its output in the result buffer. Currently the only state-preserving commands are echo, synth, and show.
C-c C-c : Interrupt Narya if a command is taking too long. Narya attempts to recover, but its state may be unreliable afterwards.
M-; : Insert a comment, remove a comment, or comment out a region. This is a standard Emacs command, but is customized to use line comments on code lines and block comments elsewhere.

As noted above, Narya's ProofGeneral mode is enhanced to deal with open holes (see below). Whenever a hole is created by processing a command, the location of the hole is highlighted in narya-hole-face (which you can customize). These highlights are removed when hole-creating commands are retracted. Narya's ProofGeneral mode also defines the following additional key commands.

C-c ; : Read a term from the minibuffer and normalize it (like C-c C-v with echo).
C-c : : Read a term from the minibuffer and synthesize its type (like C-c C-v with synth).
C-c C-? : Show the contexts and types of all open holes (like C-c C-v with show holes).
C-c C-t : Show the context and type of the hole under point (like C-c C-v with show hole, except that you don't need to know the hole number).
C-c C-j : Move the cursor to the position of the next open hole.
C-c C-k : Move the cursor to the position of the previous open hole.

Entering Unicode characters

When editing Narya files in Emacs, you will probably also want an input-mode for entering Unicode characters. Narya does not have its own such mode. I use the one that ships with Agda, customized by adding the following to agda-input-user-translations:

("r|" "↦")
("|->" "↦")
("|=>" "⤇")
("R|" "⤇")
("..." "…")

With this customization added, the Unicode characters that have primitive meanings to Narya can all be entered with short commands:

For →, type \r or \to
For ↦, type \r| or \|->
For ⤇, type \R| or \|=>
For ≔, type \:=
For …, type \...

jsNarya

As mentioned above, jsNarya is a JavaScript version of Narya that runs in a browser. Its functionality is limited to the equivalent of narya -e "STARTUP" -i: you can specify a single startup "file" by copying and pasting it into a text box, and then you drop into interactive mode. Also there is no real Unicode input-mode, although there is a palette of buttons that can be used to enter a number of common Unicode characters. These limitations are not intrinsic; we just have not yet found or implemented an appropriate frontend for anything more complicated.

jsNarya does accept customization of the arity, direction name, and internality of parametricity, plus discreteness, as discussed below. This can be done with input elements on the page before starting the interactive mode, or with appropriately-named URL parameters. For instance, supplying the URL query string ?arity=1&direction=d&external yields "Poor man's dTT" (see below), and this special case admits the shortcut ?dtt. The startup code can also be specified in the URL with the ?startup= parameter.

Built-in types

The universe

Currently there is only one universe Type that contains all types, including itself, making the type theory inconsistent. In the future it is planned to incorporate universe levels using mugen.

Functions and function-types

Apart from the universe, the only predefined type is a dependent function-type, written (x:A) → B x as in NuPRL and Agda. As usual, if B does not depend on x one can simplify this to A → B, and iterated function-types can be combined, including combining multiple variables with the same type, as in (x y : A) (z : B x y) → C x y z. Also as usual, this notation is right-associative, so A → B → C means A → (B → C). The unicode → appearing here is interchangeable with the ASCII ->.

Again as usual, functions are applied by juxtaposition; if f : (x:A) → B x and a : A then f a : B a. And this is left-associative, so if f : A → B → C then f a b : C.

Functions are introduced by abstraction, which in Narya is written (somewhat unusually) as x ↦ M, or x y z ↦ M to abstract multiple variables at once. The unicode ↦ is interchangeable with the ASCII |->.

The variable in a function-type or an abstraction can be replaced by an underscore _, indicating that that variable is not used and thus needs no name. For types this is equivalent to a non-dependent function-type: (_ : A) → B means the same as A → B. For abstractions, _ ↦ M defines a constant function, whose value doesn't depend on its input.

In addition, there is a built-in constant called Π that represents dependent function-types. The type of Π is (X : Type) → (X → Type) → Type, and Π A B reduces to (x : A) → B x. In other words, it behaves as if defined by

def Π (A : Type) (B : A → Type) : Type ≔ (x : A) → B x

This is mainly useful for writing and printing higher-dimensional function-types (see below).

Names and notations

Mixfix notations

The parser supports arbitrary mixfix operations with associativities and precedences, although we prefer to say "tightness" instead of "precedence", to make it clear that higher numbers bind more tightly. Tightnesses are dyadic rational numbers (i.e. having denominator a power of 2), written in decimal notation. Tightnesses +ω and −ω also exist, but are reserved for internal use. Some notations are built in, but the user can also declare new notations with the notation command mentioned above.

The PATTERN of a notation is a list of interspersed distinct local variable names and double-quoted symbols, such as x "+" y for addition or Γ "⊢" x "⦂" A for a typing judgment. Each quoted symbol must be exactly one token (see below); any two variables must be separated by a symbol (but two symbols can follow each other without a variable in between); and there must be at least one symbol. If the pattern starts with a variable, it may be preceded by an ellipsis …, indicating that it is left-associative; and dually if it ends with a variable, it may be followed by an ellipsis, indicating that it is right-associative (but not both).

A notation which starts and ends with a variable is called "infix"; one that starts with a symbol and ends with a variable is called "prefix"; one that starts with a variable and ends with a symbol is called "postfix"; and one that starts and ends with a symbol is called "outfix". An outfix notation may not have a tightness (it always behaves as if it has tightness +ω). All other notations must have a tightness, which is relevant only on the side(s) where they are "open" (both sides for an infix notation, the right for a prefix one, and the left for a postfix one).

As noted above, the meaning of a notation is defined by a HEAD, which is either a defined constant or a datatype constructor (see below), and ARGUMENTS that are a permutation of the pattern variables. When the notation is encountered during parsing, it will be interpreted as a corresponding application of this head to the appropriate permutation of the terms appearing in the notation. Conversely, this notation is also associated to the constant or constructor and will also be used for printing it in output. A constant can be associated to only one notation for printing it; if additional notations are declared later, they will all remain usable for parsing, but only the most recently declared one will be used for printing. A constructor can be associated to one printing notation for each number of arguments it could be applied to, since the same constructor name could be used at different datatypes with different numbers of arguments (see below).

We have already mentioned the right-associative function-type notation A → B; this has tightness 0. Function abstraction x ↦ M is also right-associative, so you can write x ↦ y → M (which can also be abbreviated as x y ↦ M), and has tightness −ω. Application M N is implemented specially since an ordinary notation cannot have two variables next to each other without a symbol in between, but it behaves as though it is left-associative with tightness +ω. (In particular, a nonassociative prefix notation of tightness +ω, say @, will bind tighter than application, so that @ f x parses as (@ f) x. However, there are no such notations yet.)

In addition, parentheses ( M ) are defined as an outfix notation, hence with effective tightness +ω. This emphasizes that the "internal" locations of any notation (those with notation symbols on both sides) behave as if surrounded by parentheses; in particular, notations of any tightness, even −ω, can appear therein without further parenthesization. Tightness and associativity only control what other notations can appear in the "external" locations that are delimited by a notation symbol on one side only.

Comments and strings

There are two kinds of comments. A line comment starts with a backquote ` and extends to the end of the line. A block comment starts with {` and ends with `}. Block comments can be nested and can contain line comments, but cannot start inside a line comment.

String literals are surrounded by double-quotes, as in "hello, world". At present the only use of string literals is in the notation command for defining user notations.

Tokens

A Narya source file is expected to be UTF-8 encoded and can contain arbitrary Unicode. As usual, the code is first lexed by separating it into "tokens", and then the sequence of tokens is parsed into an abstract syntax tree of notations. Both identifiers (variable and constant names) and the symbols in a mixfix notation are tokens. Whitespace (including comments) always creates a token boundary. And since notation symbols can be made of the same characters that might be in an identifier, whitespace is sometimes necessary to separate identifiers from symbols. For instance, if ⋆ is defined as a binary operator, we cannot write x⋆y (or even 1⋆1) since that would be lexed as a single token.

However, in Narya there are the following exceptions to this, where whitespace is not needed to separate tokens:

The characters ( ) [ ] { } ? → ↦ ⤇ ≔ ⩴ ⩲ …, which either have built-in meaning or are reserved for future built-in meanings, are always treated as single tokens. Thus, they do not need to be surrounded by whitespace. This is the case for parentheses and braces in most languages, but in Narya you can also write, e.g., A→B without spaces. The non-ASCII characters in this group all have ASCII-sequence substitutes that are completely interchangeable: -> |-> |=> := ::= += .... Additional characters may be added to this list in the future.
A nonempty string consisting of the characters ~ ! @ # $ % & * / = + \ | , < > : ; - is always treated as a single token, and does not need to be surrounded by whitespace. Moreover, such tokens may only be notation symbols, not identifiers. Note that this is most of the non-alphanumeric characters that appear on a standard US keyboard except for those that already have another meaning (parentheses, backquote, double quote, curly braces) or are allowed in identifiers (period, underscore, and single quote). In particular:
- Ordinary algebraic operations like + and * can be defined so that x+y and x*y are valid.
- This includes the colon, so you can write (x:A) → B, and similarly for the comma , in a tuple and the bar | in a match or comatch (see below). But the user can also use these characters in other operators.
- The ASCII substitutes for the single-token Unicode characters also fall into this category, so you can write for instance A->B.
- The ASCII hyphen - is in this category; in addition to its being part of -> and |->, this allows a subtraction operator x-y to be written without spaces. (Note, though, that the current parser does not permit a binary subtraction to coexist with a unary negation using the same character.) Therefore, unlike in Agda, the hyphen is not allowed in identifiers.
This rule is intended to be a compromise, allowing the user to define plenty of infix operators that don't require spacing but also arbitrary unicode operators, while keeping the lexer rules simple and unchanging as new operators are defined. However, feedback is welcome!
A nonempty string such as ⁽¹ᵉ³⁾ consisting of Unicode superscript letter, digit, and hyphen characters, ᵃᵇᶜᵈᵉᶠᵍʰⁱʲᵏˡᵐⁿᵒᵖ𐞥ʳˢᵗᵘᵛʷˣʸᶻ⁰¹²³⁴⁵⁶⁷⁸⁹⁻, in between Unicode superscript parentheses, ⁽ and ⁾, is treated as a single token and applied as a "superscript" operator to whatever immediately precedes it. This is used for generic degeneracies (see below). It binds more tightly than anything (tightness of "ω+1"), including function application, so that f⁽ᵉ⁾ x means (f⁽ᵉ⁾) x and f x⁽ᵉ⁾ means f (x⁽ᵉ⁾). In addition, a caret ^ followed by a nonempty string of the corresponding ASCII characters abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz0123456789- (no internal spaces!) in between ordinary parentheses ( and ) has exactly the same meaning with the same tightness: f^(e) x means the same as f⁽ᵉ⁾ x. (Unicode subscript characters are not treated specially; thus they may appear freely in identifiers or symbols, as may unicode superscripts not involving any parentheses.)

Identifiers

Identifiers (variables and constant names) can be any string of non-whitespace characters, other than those mentioned above as special, that does not start or end with a period or an underscore, and is not a reserved word. Currently the reserved words are

let rec in def and axiom echo notation import export solve show quit undo match return sig data codata

In particular, identifiers may start with a digit, or even consist entirely of digits (thereby shadowing a numeral notation, see below). Internal periods in identifiers denote namespace qualifiers on constants; thus they cannot appear in local variable names.

Imports and scoping

File imports

The command import FILE executes another Narya file and adds (some of) its definitions and notations to the current namespace. The commands in the imported file cannot access any definitions from other files, including the current one, except those that it imports itself. Importing is not transitive: if a.ny imports b.ny, and b.ny imports c.ny, then the definitions from c.ny do not appear in the namespace of a.ny unless it also imports c.ny explicitly.

More precisely, there are two namespaces at any time: the "import" namespace, which determines the names that are available to use in the current file, and the "export" namespace, which determines the names that will be made available to other files that import this one. The command import only affects the import namespace, but the variant using the word export instead affects both.

By contrast, when in interactive mode or executing a command-line -e string, all definitions from all files and strings that were explicitly specified previously on the command line are available, even if not exported. This does not carry over transitively to files imported by them. Standard input (indicated by - on the command line) is treated as an ordinary file; thus it must import any other files it wants to use, but its definitions are automatically available in -e strings and interactive mode.

No file will be executed more than once during a single run, even if it is imported by multiple other files. Thus, if both b.ny and c.ny import d.ny, and a.ny imports both b.ny and c.ny, any effectual commands like echo in d.ny will only happen once, there will only be one copy of the definitions from d.ny in the namespace of a.ny, and the definitions from b.ny and c.ny are compatible. Circular imports are not allowed (and are checked for). The order of execution is as specified on the command-line, with depth-first traversal of import statements as they are encountered. Thus, for instance, if the command-line is narya one.ny two.ny but one.ny imports two.ny, then two.ny will be executed during one.ny whenever that import statement is encountered, and then skipped when we get to it on the command-line since it was alread yexecuted.

Import modifiers

Narya uses Yuujinchou for hierarchical namespacing, with periods to separate namespaces. Thus a name like nat.plus lies in the nat namespace. It can be defined in the following two equivalent ways:

def nat.plus ≔ BODY

section nat ≔
  def plus ≔ BODY
end

According to Yuujinchou, namespaces are untyped, implicit, and patchable: you can add anything you want to the nat namespace, anywhere, simply by defining it with a name that starts with nat.

By default, an import command merges the namespace of the imported file with the current namespace. However, it is also possible to apply Yuujinchou modifiers to the imported namespace before it is merged with the command form import FILE | MOD. (The symbol | is intended to suggest a Unix pipe that sends the definitions of FILE through the modifiers before importing them.) The valid modifiers are exactly those of Yuujinchou:

all: Keep everything, checking that there is something to keep.
id: Keep everything, without checking that there is anything to keep.
none: Drop everything, checking that there was something to drop.
only NAME: Keep only the namespace rooted at NAME, without renaming anything. Thus only nat will keep nat.plus and nat.times, under those names, but discard int.plus.
except NAME: Keep everything except the namespace rooted at NAME, without renaming anything. Thus except nat will discard nat.plus and nat.times but keep int.plus and real.plus.
in NAME MOD: Apply the modifier MOD to the namespace rooted at NAME, leaving everything else alone. Thus in nat only plus will keep nat.plus.assoc and nat.plus.comm and int.times but discard nat.times.assoc.
renaming NAME1 NAME2: Rename the namespace rooted at NAME1 to instead be rooted at NAME2, checking that NAME1 is nonempty, and silently dropping anything already present under NAME2.
seq (MOD1, MOD2, …): Perform the modifiers MOD1, MOD2, and so on in order. In particular, seq () is equivalent to id.
union (MOD1, MOD2, …): Apply all the modifiers MOD1, MOD2 to the original namespace in parallel and take the union of the results. In particular, union () is like none but doesn't check that there is anything to drop.

The NAMEs in all these commands are ordinary identifiers, with one additional option: a bare period . represents the root namespace. Thus renaming nat . will rename nat.plus to just plus and nat.times to just times, discarding everything that doesn't start with nat. On the other hand, renaming . foo will add foo to the beginning of everything. In particular, therefore, import "arith" | renaming . arith is the standard sort of "qualified import" that will import definitions like nat.plus from a file like "arith.ny" but renamed to arith.nat.plus.

Currently, you can and must specify explicitly the qualifying namespace prefix; it has no automatic relationship to the imported filename or path. More generally, the full syntax for Yuujinchou modifiers is rather verbose, so we may introduce abbreviated versions of some common operations. Feedback is welcome about what those should be.

Importing namespaces

The first argument of the import command can also be a namespace, with the effect that the contents of that namespace are merged with the root, possibly with a modifier applied. Thus, for instance, after the following:

axiom a.one : ℕ ≔ 1
axiom a.two : ℕ ≔ 2
import a | renaming one uno

the names a.one and uno will refer to 1 while the names a.two and two will refer to 2.

Imported names also remain available in their original locations; there is no way to remove a name from the scope once it is added. In addition, names imported this way are not exported from the current file when it it loaded by another file. That is, if the above example is in a file "foo.ny", then if some other file says import "foo" then it will only be able to access the original names a.one and a.two, not the new ones uno and two. But, of course, they are exported if the variant called export is used instead.

Importing notations

Importing of notations defined by another file is implemented as a special case of importing names. Specifically, when a new notation is declared with a NAME, it is associated to that name in the current namespace prefixed by notations. Thus, for instance, notation 1 plus : x "+" y ≔ plus x y associates this notation to the name notations.plus. Then, whenever another file is imported, any notations that are present in the notations namespace after the modifiers are applied become available in the current file. Since by default the complete namespace of an imported file is merged with the current one, this means that by default all notations defined in that file also become available.

The notations namespace is not otherwise special: you can put constants in it too, but this is not recommended. The names of constants and of notations inhabit the same domain: you cannot have a constant and a notation with the same name, although since newly created notations always have names that start with notations this is not usually a problem. It is possible for notations to end up with names that don't start with notation through import modifiers, but in that case they are not available to the parser.

For example, you can avoid making any imported notations available by using the modifier except notations, or you can import only the notations and no definitions with only notations. Or you can import only a few particular notations with a modifier like in notations union (only plus; only times). In particular, if you import an entire file qualified such as import "arith" | renaming . arith, then a notation such as notations.plus in "arith.ny" will be renamed to arith.notations.plus, which is not in the notations namespace and thus will not be available to the parser. To import all the constants qualified but make all the notations available, write import "arith" | seq (renaming . arith; renaming arith.notations notations). (This is probably a good candidate to have an abbreviated version.)

The notations namespace can also contain sub-namespaces: if you write notation 1 nat.plus then it will go in the namespace as notations.nat.plus. Then by importing with in notations only nat you can get all the notations in that namespace such as notations.nat.plus and notations.nat.times, but no other notations from the imported file. Thus, notation namespaces act somewhat like Coq's notation scopes, although they can only be opened globally and not locally to part of a term.

Compilation

Whenever a file FILE.ny is successfully executed, Narya writes a "compiled" version of that file in the same directory called FILE.nyo. Then in future runs of Narya, whenever FILE.ny is to be executed, if

-source-only was not specified,
FILE.ny was not specified explicitly on the command-line (so that it must have been imported by another file),
FILE.nyo exists in the same directory,
the same type theory flags (-arity, -direction, -internal/-external, and -discreteness) are in effect now as when FILE.nyo was compiled,
FILE.ny has not been modified more recently than FILE.nyo, and
none of the files imported by FILE.ny are newer than it or their compiled versions,

then FILE.nyo is loaded directly instead of re-executing FILE.ny, skipping the typechecking step. This can be much faster. If any of these conditions fail, then FILE.ny is executed from source as usual, and a new compiled version FILE.nyo is saved, overwriting the previous one.

Effectual commands like echo are not re-executed when a file is loaded from its compiled version (they are not even stored in the compiled version). Since this may be surprising, Narya issues a warning when loading a compiled version of a file that originally contained echo commands. Since files explicitly specified on the command-line are never loaded from a compiled version, the best way to avoid this warning is to avoid echo statements in "library" files that are intended to be imported by other files. Of course, you can also use -source-only to prevent all loading from compiled files.

Typechecking details

Bidirectionality

Narya's typechecker is bidirectional. This means that some terms synthesize a type, and hence can be used even in a place where the "expected" type of a term is not known, whereas other terms check against a type, and hence can only be used where there is an "expected" type for them to check against. Of the terms we have mentioned so far:

Function application M N synthesizes, by first requiring M to synthesize a function-type (x:A) → B, then checking N against the input type A, and finally synthesizing the corresponding output B[N/x].
Function abstraction x ↦ M checks against a function-type (x:A) → B by checking M against B in a context extended by a variable x:A. In particular, this means that the same abstraction term can mean different things depending on what type it is checked against. For instance, x ↦ x checks against any endo-function type A → A. (Speaking semantically, however, we do not regard this as "one term having multiple types"; rather we consider that the typechecker is elaborating the ambiguous notation x ↦ x using contextual information to produce a distinct identity term in each endo-function type.)
Type-forming operators such as Type and (x:A) → B synthesize, after requiring their inputs to synthesize. This might be modified later after universe levels are introduced.
Variables and constants synthesize their declared types.

Ascription

If you want to use a checking term in a synthesizing position, you have to ascribe it to a particular type by writing M : A (or M:A by the lexer rules discussed above, assuming M doesn't end, or A start, with a special ASCII character notation). This checks M against the supplied type A, and then itself synthesizes that type. For example, you cannot directly apply an abstraction to an argument to create a redex as in (x ↦ M) N, since the abstraction only checks whereas a function being applied must synthesize, but you can if you ascribe it as in ((x ↦ M) : A → B) N. In general, ascription tends only to be needed when explicitly writing a redex or something similar.

The ascription notation has tightness −ω, and is non-associative, so that M : N : P is a parse error. However, the right-associativity of ↦ and the fact that they share the same tightness means that x ↦ M : A is parsed as x ↦ (M : A), hence the placement of parentheses in the above example redex.

Side note: The coexistence of type ascription and NuPRL/Agda-style dependent function-types leads to a potential ambiguity: (x : A) → B could be a dependent function type, but it could also be a non-dependent function type whose domain x is ascribed to type A (which would therefore have to be a type universe). Narya resolves this in favor of the dependent function type, which is nearly always what is intended. If you really mean the other you can write it as ((x : A)) → B or ((x) : A) → B; but I can't imagine why you would need to do this, since the only possible ambiguity is when x is a variable (or a list of variables), and variables and constants (and application spines of such) always synthesize their type anyway and thus don't need to be ascribed.

Let-binding

Writing let x ≔ M in N binds the local variable x to the value M while typechecking and evaluating N. The unicode ≔ is interchangeable with the ASCII :=. Computationally, let x ≔ M in N is equivalent to (x ↦ N) M, but it also binds x to the value M while typechecking N, which in a dependent type theory is stronger.

The term M is required to synthesize. Thus let x ≔ M : A in N is a common idiom, and can be written alternatively as let x : A ≔ M in N. The body N can either check or synthesize, and the let-binding as a whole inherits this from it: if N synthesizes a type then the let-binding synthesizes the same type, while if N checks then the let-binding checks against a type that is passed on to N to check against. The let-binding notation is right-associative with tightness −ω.

An ordinary let-binding is not recursive: the variable x cannot appear in the term M. This is intentional and enables a common idiom where x shadows a previously existing variable of the same name in N, while the previous variable of that name can appear in M, thereby creating the illusion that the value of that variable has been "changed". For instance, let x ≔ x + 1 in has the appearance of incrementing the value of x.

However, it is possible to define a recursive let-binding by writing let rec instead of let. (Note that let and rec are two keywords separated by a space.) In this case, the variable x can appear in M, and of course shadows any previously defined variable of the same name in M as well as in N. In a recursive let-binding the type of M must be given explicitly (as with a top-level def which can also be recursive): the only valid syntax is let rec x : A ≔ M in N. (Recursive let-bindings are also treated "generatively", like let-bindings that include matches or comatches; see below.)

Eta-conversion and case trees

Functions satisfy undirected η-conversion (in addition to the obvious directed β-reduction). That is, while neither of x ↦ f x or f simplifies to the other, they are considered equal for the purposes of typechecking (they are "convertible"). The way this works is that the equality-checking algorithm is type-sensitive, and when comparing two terms at a function type it first applies them to a fresh variable, and (x ↦ f x) y then reduces to f y.

In addition, constants defined as functions do not reduce until they are applied to all of their arguments, including both arguments declared as parameters (before the colon) and those not so declared. For instance, if we define addition of Church numerals as

def cplus (A:Type) (m n : (A → A) → (A → A)) : (A → A) → (A → A) ≔
  f x ↦ m f (n f x)

then cplus A (f x ↦ f x) (f x ↦ f x) (i.e. "1 + 1") doesn't reduce to (f x ↦ f (f x)) because it is not fully applied, whereas cplus A (f x ↦ f x) (f x ↦ f x) f x does reduce to f (f x). However, cplus A (f x ↦ f x) (f x ↦ f x) is still convertible with (f x ↦ f (f x)) because equality-checking does η-conversion. If you want to display the body of a constant defined as a function, you must manually η-expand it, which means it has to be ascribed as well:

echo (A f x ↦ cplus A (f x ↦ f x) (f x ↦ f x) f x)
  : (A:Type) → (A → A) → (A → A)
  
A f x ↦ f (f x)
  : (A : Type) → (A → A) → A → A

If there is significant demand for displaying function bodies, we may add an option to ask for η-expansion.

More generally, the definition of a constant is not just a term, but something called a case tree, which can contain internal nodes of different sorts and ends in ordinary terms at its leaves. Evaluation of such a constant, applied to arguments, does not reduce to anything unless the arguments are sufficient and sufficiently informative for the evaluation to reach a leaf. In fact every defined constant in Narya is actually defined to equal a case tree, even if it consists only of a single leaf.

So far, the only kinds of case tree node we have seen are abstractions and let-bindings. The requirement for abstractions in a case tree to reduce is just that the function receives enough arguments to β-reduce all the abstractions, and let-bindings in a case tree reduce if their body does. Thus, in particular, an abstraction directly inside a let-binding, such as that over y above, must also receive an argument before the definition reduces. Other kinds of case tree nodes, with their own reduction rules, include tuples, matches, and comatches, discussed below.

Since abstractions and let-bindings can also occur at arbitrary positions in a term, there is some potential ambiguity in a definition containing these: are they part of the case tree, or part of a unique body term? The rule to resolve this is that the case tree includes as much as possible. Once another kind of term is encountered that cannot be a case tree node, then that term and all its sub-terms (including any abstractions or let-bindings) are part of the leaf. Thus, for instance, in

def foo : A → B → C ≔ 
  x ↦ 
  let y ≔ M in
  y ↦
  f (z ↦ N)

the abstractions over x and y are part of the case tree, as is the let-binding, but the abstraction z ↦ N is not. Thus, foo and foo a will not reduce, but foo a b will reduce. This behavior is usually what you want, but if you really want to define a constant that reduces to an abstraction before it receives an argument you can wrap it in a no-op redex:

def id (A:Type) : A → A
  ≔ ((f ↦ f) : (A → A) → (A → A)) (x ↦ x)

Since a function application cannot be part of a case tree, it goes into the body term, including the abstraction over f; thus id A will reduce to x ↦ x. Unfortunately the identity function has to be ascribed, as always whenever you write an explicit redex. A slightly less verbose way to achieve this is to let-bind the abstraction to a variable and then return the variable, since let-bindings are fully evaluated before being assigned to a variable:

def id (A:Type) : A → A
  ≔ let id' : A → A ≔ (x ↦ x) in id'

However, the type A → A still has to be written again, since a let-binding must synthesize. If there is significant demand for it, we may implement a less kludgy way to force transitioning from case tree nodes to a leaf.

Interactive proof

Holes

The basic ingredient of interactive proof is a hole. A hole is indicated by the character ?, which is always its own token. A hole does not synthesize, but checks against any type whatsoever. A command containing one or more holes will succeed as long as all the terms in it typecheck without knowing anything about the contents of the holes, i.e. treating the holes as axioms generalized over their contexts, i.e. if it would be well-typed for any value of the hole having its given type. If there are equality constraints on the possible fillers of the hole, then the command will fail; a hole is not equal to anything except itself (this may be improved in the future).

When a command containing holes finishes succesfully (in verbose or interactive mode), messages are emitted showing the type and context of every hole in it. In ProofGeneral mode, these types and contexts are displayed in the "goals" window. You can then continue to issue/process other commands afterwards, and each hole will continue to be treated like an axiom. When a term containing a hole is printed, the hole displays as ?N{…} where N is the sequential number of the hole. (Note that even if no holes appear explicitly when you print a term, it might still depend implicitly on the values of holes if it involves constants whose definition contain holes.) Unlike the printing of most terms, ?N{…} for a hole is not a re-parseable notation. Moreover, if the hole has a nonempty context, then occurrences of that hole in other terms may have other terms substituted for the variables in its context and these substitutions are not indicated by the notation ?N{…} (this is what the notation {…} is intended to suggest). This may be improved in future, but it is ameliorated somewhat by the treatment of holes in case trees.

Specifically, a hole ? left in a place where a case tree would be valid to continue is a case tree hole, and is treated a bit differently than an ordinary hole. The obvious difference is that a case tree hole can be solved (see below) by a case tree rather than an ordinary term. But in addition, evaluation of a function does not reduce when it reaches a case tree hole, and thus a case tree hole will never appear when printing terms: instead the function in which it appears as part of the definition. This may be a little surprising, but it has the advantage of being a re-parseable notation, and also explicitly indicating all the arguments of the function (which would constitute the substitution applied to a term hole, and hence not currently printed).

When Narya reaches the end of a file (or command-line -e string) in which any holes were created and not solved, it issues an error. In the future this might become configurable, but it aligns with the behavior of most other proof assistants that each file must be complete before it can be loaded into another file. Of course, this doesn't happen in interactive mode. For this reason, a warning message is emitted after every command as long as there are open holes remaining.

Solving holes

Generally the purpose of leaving a hole is to see its displayed type and context, making it easier to fill the hole by a term. The straightforward way to fill a hole is to edit the source code to replace the ? by a term (perhaps containing other holes) and reload the file. In interactive mode, you can undo 1 to cancel the original command containing the hole, press Up-arrow or Meta+P to recover it in the history, edit it to replace the ?, and re-execute it. In ProofGeneral mode, you can C-c C-u to retract the hole-creating command and edit it (or just start editing it and it will auto-retract), and then re-process it with C-c C-n.

In interactive mode, it is also possible to solve a hole directly with the command solve. This command identifies a hole by its number and supplies a term with which to fill the hole. For example:

def f : Type → Type ≔ X ↦ ?

 ￫ info[I0100]
 ￮ hole ?0 generated:
   
   X : Type
   ----------------------------------------------------------------------
   Type

 ￫ info[I0000]
 ￮ constant f defined, containing 1 hole

solve 0 ≔ X

 ￫ info[I0005]
 ￮ hole solved

Of course, the term given to solve can contain other holes, which will be printed and can themselves be solved later. The term solving a hole is parsed and typechecked in the context where the hole was created: thus it can refer by name to variables that were in the context at that point (like X above) and constants that were defined at that point, and use notations that were in effect at that point, but not constants or notations that were defined later.

The identification of holes by sequential number is, of course, rather fragile: adding or removing a hole changes the numbers of all the holes after that point. For this reason the solve command is only allowed in interactive mode. Indeed, it is intended primarily as a backend for a so-far unimplemented ProofGeneral command that solve holes identified positionally as in Agda, and as a primitive for (so-far unimplemented) tactic proofs as in Coq and Lean; and in both of those cases the hole numbers will be managed programmatically rather than by the user.

If you have forgotten the context and type of a hole that were displayed when it was created, you can re-display them with the command show hole HOLE which displays the context and type of a specific open hole by number, or show holes which displays the context and type of all the currently open holes. In ProofGeneral mode the key command C-c C-? issues show holes, while C-c C-t issues show hole with the hole number inferred automatically from the cursor position (which must be over an open hole).

Record types and tuples

We now describe the various other classes of types that can be defined by the user, starting with the simplest, record types.

Defining record types

A record type is defined by a number of fields, each with a declared type. A constant of type Type can be defined to be a record type in a def statement by using the keyword sig and listing the fields with their types in parentheses, separated by commas. For instance, we could bundle a type with an operation on it:

def Magma : Type ≔ sig (
  t : Type,
  op : t → t → t,
)

The trailing comma after the last field is optional. (By the lexing rules above, no space is required around the commas, unless they follow a type that is expressed using a notation that ends with another special ASCII character.) Note that later fields can depend on the values of previous fields, by name. The names of fields must be valid local variable names, i.e. identifiers not containing periods.

Although this command may look like it is defining Magma to equal a pre-existing type denoted sig (t:Type, op:t→t→t), in fact it declares Magma to be a new type that didn't previously exist and doesn't reduce to anything else. In particular, therefore, declaring another identical-looking type:

def Magma' : Type ≔ sig (
  t : Type,
  op : t → t → t,
)

will yield a different result: Magma and Magma' are not convertible (although they will be isomorphic).

Like any definition, record types can have parameters. For example, Σ-types are just a record type that can be defined by the user, if you wish:

def Σ (A : Type) (B : A → Type) : Type ≔ sig (
  fst : A,
  snd : B fst,
)

However, we consider it better style in general to use specialized record types rather than generic Σ-types, as it provides better error-checking and documentation of the meaning of the fields. It is also probably more efficient to use one record type with a lot of fields than an iterated Σ-type. In the future we plan to implement metaprogramming-like capabilities for proving theorems about arbitrary record types, so that using them in preference to generic Σ-types does not entail a loss of expressivity.

Currently user notations cannot bind variables, so it is not possible to define a binding notation such as (x : A) × B x for Σ-types. But if we define a non-dependent product type, we can give it an infix notation:

def prod (A B : Type) : Type ≔ sig (
  fst : A,
  snd : B,
)

notation 2 prod : A "×" B ≔ prod A B

The fact that parameters can equivalently be abstracted over in the type and the term applies also to record type declarations. That is, the above definition of Σ-types is entirely equivalent to

def Σ : (A:Type) → (A → Type) → Type ≔ A B ↦ sig (
  fst : A,
  snd : B fst,
)

A record type can have only one field:

def wrapped_nat : Type ≔ sig ( unwrap : ℕ )

or even zero fields:

def ⊤ : Type ≔ sig ()

Tuples

To define an element of a record type we use a tuple, which consists of components separated by commas inside parentheses. The most explicit kind of tuple labels each component by name, for instance:

def nat.magma : Magma ≔ (
  t ≔ ℕ,
  op ≔ plus,
)

Again, the trailing comma is optional, the Unicode ≔ can be replaced by ASCII :=, and neither of them normally requires surrounding space. In this explicit version, the order of the fields doesn't matter: the above is equivalent to

def nat.magma : Magma ≔ (
  op ≔ plus,
  t ≔ ℕ,
)

Note that whatever order they are written in a tuple, the fields will always be typechecked in the order specified in the record type declaration. This is necessary because the types of later fields can depend on the values of earlier ones.

The names of the fields in a tuple can also be replaced by underscores or omitted entirely, and in this case the fields are taken from the type definition in the order given there. If some fields are named and others are not, the unnamed fields are matched up with the fields in the type that aren't named explicitly in the tuple, again in order. Thus, we can also write the above tuple as any of the following:

(ℕ, plus)
(_ ≔ ℕ, _ ≔ plus)
(ℕ, op ≔ plus)
(t ≔ ℕ, plus)
(op ≔ plus, ℕ)
(plus, t ≔ ℕ)

but not, of course, (plus, ℕ) since that would try to interpret plus as the value of the field t. Unlabeled tuples are convenient for small examples, including familiar cases such as (0,0) : ℝ × ℝ, but for records with large numbers of fields they are discouraged as being hard to understand and brittle. (But some mathematicians do like to write, for instance, (G,m,e,i,a,l,r,v) : Group, and that is allowed.)

As this discussion suggests, tuples check, and do not synthesize. In particular, this means that, as for function abstractions, the same tuple can mean different things when checked at different types. An unlabeled tuple (a,b) can check at any record type with two fields for which a checks at the type of the first field and b at the type of the second (possibly depending on the value of a). A labeled tuple such as (fst ≔ a, snd ≔ b) can likewise check at any such record type for which the names of the two fields are fst and snd. Field names are not scoped or namespaced: they belong to a flat global name domain, distinct from that of constants and variables.

Like record types, tuples can have zero fields:

def ⋆ : ⊤ ≔ ()

They can also have only one field, although the naïve notation (M) isn't allowed for this case since it would clash with ordinary parenthesized terms. To write a 1-tuple you can label the field, perhaps with an underscore, or you can add a trailing comma:

def wrapped_zero : wrapped_nat ≔ (unwrap ≔ zero.)
def wrapped_zero : wrapped_nat ≔ (_ ≔ zero.)
def wrapped_zero : wrapped_nat ≔ (zero. ,)

Syntactically, tuples are an outfix notation that includes the parentheses, rather than an infix meaning of the comma; thus the parentheses are always required. Tuples are not associative: neither (a, (b, c)) nor ((a, b), c) can be written as (a,b,c). The latter belongs to a record type with three fields, whereas the former two belong to a record type with two fields, one of which is itself a record type with two fields. (This aligns with the behavior of functional programming languages such as Haskell and OCaml.)

Accessing fields

If M belongs to a record type that has a field named fld, then M .fld extracts the value of this field. In particular, if M is a tuple, then this reduces to the corresponding component. Note the space in M .fld, which distinguishes it from a single identifier named M.fld in the namespace M.

A field projection M .fld requires M to synthesize a record type, and then synthesizes the value of the field fld in that record type (with any earlier fields that it depends on replaced by the corresponding fields of M). Thus, if you want to write a "record redex" that creates a tuple and then immediately projects out one of its fields, you need to ascribe the tuple: ((a, b) : Σ A B) .fst.

Like unlabeled tuples that default to the order in which fields were declared in the record type, fields can also be projected out by index: M .0 means the zeroth field declared in the record type, M .1 means the first field, and so on. It's important to note that this is in reference to the order in which fields were declared in the record type, not in any tuple, even if labels were used in the tuple to give the components in a different order. For instance, ((snd ≔ b, fst ≔ a) : Σ A B) .0 equals a. As with tuples, positional field access is convenient for small examples (especially when using positional tuples as well), but confusing and brittle when there are many fields.

Parsing field projections

Field projections behave like a symbol-free left-associative infix operator of tightness +ω, and can therefore be interspersed with ordinary applications to form an "elimination spine": f a .fld b means ((f a) .fld) b, in which we successively "eliminate" f by applying it to an argument (the elimination rule of a function type), project out a field (the elimination rule of a record type), and then apply it to another argument. Indeed, it can sometimes be helpful to think of an element of a record type as a "function" and of M .fld as "applying" it to the field name as an "argument".

It must be emphasized that field projections bind with the same tightness as function application, similarly associating to the left. This applies even if the argument preceeding the field ends with a special character so that a space is not required, e.g. f (g a).fld b means ((f (g a)) .fld) b. If you mean to project the field from g a, you must write f ((g a).fld) b, or better f (g a .fld) b. This convention differs from field projections in many functional languages such as OCaml and Haskell (although it matches the behavior of Agda), but we believe it is the correct choice in a language where function application is denoted by juxtaposition. For example, in a language like Java where function calls are parenthesized, one frequently finds an idiom like

object.methodOne(x, y, z)
  .methodTwo(a, b)
  .methodThree(c, d, e)
  .methodFour()

to call a sequence of methods on each other's outputs. In Narya and Agda, you can write the same thing even more simply without the parentheses:

object .methodOne x y z
  .methodTwo a b
  .methodThree c d e
  .methodFour

But in a language with application by juxtaposition but where field projection binds tighter than function application, such as OCaml and Haskell, you have to write lots of silly parentheses:

(((object.methodOne x y z)
  .methodTwo a b)
  .methodThree c d e)
  .methodFour

Eta-conversion and reduction

Records satisfy η-conversion: two elements of a record type whose components are field-wise convertible are themselves convertible. For instance, if M : Σ A B, then M is convertible with (M .fst, M .snd), although neither reduces to the other. In particular, if a record type has zero fields, then it has a unique element () up to convertibility; and if it has only one field, it is definitionally isomorphic to the type of that field.

In addition, tuples are allowed as nodes in a case tree. Thus, a constant that is defined to directly equal a tuple, or an abstracted tuple, or a tuple inside a let-binding, does not reduce to that tuple directly: it only reduces when a field is projected. (Now we see why case trees are trees, as with tuple nodes they can in fact ramify into multiple branches.) For instance, if we have

def pair (a:A) (b:B a) : Σ A B ≔ (a,b)

then pair a b doesn't reduce to (a,b). But pair a b .fst does reduce to a and pair a b .snd does reduce to b, which in turn means (by η-conversion) that pair a b is convertible with (a,b). Similarly, abstractions inside a tuple are also still part of the case tree, and block reduction until applied to all their arguments: if we have

def unpairfn (f : A → B × C) : (A → B) × (A → C) ≔ (x ↦ (f x).fst, x ↦ (f x).snd)

then unpairfn f .fst does not reduce until applied to a further argument. As with abstractions, you can force such reduction by wrapping the term in an identity function.

Eta-expansion and opacity

Often the behavior described above is convenient, e.g. when printing a term belonging to a large record type with many fields, such as ℤ : Ring or Grp : Cat, you don't want to see the explicit definitions of all the fields. However, there are times when you do want to see the definitions of the fields, and for this purpose you can change the "opacity" of a record type.

Opacity is an attribute of a record type. Attributes are an experimental feature, particularly their syntax, and may change radically in the future. At present, only record types can have attributes, and the only attributes are those relating to opacity. The current syntax for defining a record type with an attribute is sig #(ATTR) ( … ). Currently attributes can only be set when a record type is defined; in the future it may be possible to alter them after the fact. Opacity attributes do not affect convertibility of terms; η-conversion is always valid internally. Opacity attributes only affect how terms are displayed to the user. (If you want a record-like type without η-conversion, use a non-recursive codatatype; see below.)

To explain the opacity attributes, suppose that with the definitions above, we also have

axiom x : A × ⊤
def y : A × ⊤ ≔ (a, ⋆)
def z : A × ⊤ ≔ (a, ())

We now list the opacity attributes, along with how altering the opacity of prod (but not ⊤) would change the printing behavior of the above terms.

opaque: This is the default setting, as described above: no η-expansion happens, so only terms that are syntactically tuples outside of a case tree are printed as tuples. If prod is opaque, then:
- x is printed as x
- y is printed as y
- z is printed as z
transparent, a.k.a. transparent labeled: When a record type is transparent, all terms belonging to that record type are η-expanded before being printed. By default, η-expanded tuples are printed with labels; the alternate attribute name transparent labeled emphasizes this. If prod is transparent labeled, then:
- x is printed as (fst ≔ x .fst, snd ≔ x .snd)
- y is printed as (fst ≔ a, snd ≔ ⋆)
- z is printed as (fst ≔ a, snd ≔ z .snd). Note that z .snd is not η-expanded to () because it belongs to the record type ⊤ which we are assuming is still opaque.
transparent positional: Like transparent labeled, but η-expanded tuples are printed positionally rather than with labeled terms. If prod is transparent positional, then:
- x is printed as (x .fst, x .snd)
- y is printed as (a, ⋆)
- z is printed as (a, z .snd)
translucent, a.k.a. translucent labeled: When a record type is translucent, terms belonging to that record type are η-expanded before being printed if and only if they are a tuple in a case tree. Note that this does not guarantee that all or any of their fields will evaluate completely; any field whose case tree branch is stuck will be printed as a projection, as in the transparent case. If prod is translucent labeled, then:
- x is printed as x
- y is printed as (fst ≔ a, snd ≔ ⋆)
- z is printed as (fst ≔ a, snd ≔ z .snd).
translucent positional: Like translucent labeled, but η-expanded tuples are printed positionally rather than with labeled terms. If prod is translucent positional, then:
- x is printed as x
- y is printed as (a, ⋆)
- z is printed as (a, z .snd)

For a record type with zero fields, η-expansion prints all of its elements as (), with no difference between labeled and positional. And for a record type with one field, positional η-expansion prints its elements as (_ ≔ a). There is currently no way to cause the projections in an η-expansion to be printed with positional notation such as (x .0, x .1).

Inductive datatypes and matching

Defining datatypes

An inductive datatype is defined by a number of constructors, each with a declared type that must be an iterated function-type whose eventual codomain is the datatype itself. A constant of type Type can be defined to be a datatype in a def statement by using the keyword data and listing the constructors with their types in square brackets, separated by bars. For instance, we can define the booleans:

def Bool : Type ≔ data [
| true. : Bool
| false. : Bool
]

The | before the first constructor is optional, and no spaces are required around the brackets and bar (unless, as usual, the bar is adjacent to a notation involving other special ASCII symbols).

Note that each constructor ends with a period. This is intentionally dual to the fact that record fields (and codata methods, see below) begin with a period, and reminds us that constructors, like fields and records, are not namespaced but belong to a separate flat name domain. (OCaml programmers should think of polymorphic variants, not regular variants, although there is no subtyping yet.) The use of separate syntax distinguishing constructors from variables and functions is also familiar from functional programming, although the specific use of a dot suffix is unusual (capitalization is more common).

Also as with record types, this is not defining Bool to equal a pre-existing thing, but declaring it to be a new type that didn't previously exist and doesn't reduce to anything else.

Datatypes can have parameters:

def Sum (A B : Type) : Type ≔ data [
| inl. : A → Sum A B
| inr. : B → Sum A B
]

As with records, this is equivalent to

def Sum : Type → Type → Type ≔ A B ↦ data [
| inl. : A → Sum A B
| inr. : B → Sum A B
]

When there are parameters, the output type must be the datatype applied to those same parameters.

The arguments of each constructor can also be written as parameters before its colon:

def Sum (A B : Type) : Type ≔ data [
| inl. (a : A) : Sum A B
| inr. (b : B) : Sum A B
]

When all the arguments (if any) are written this way, the output type can be omitted since we know what it must be (the datatype being defined):

def Sum (A B : Type) : Type ≔ data [
| inl. (a : A)
| inr. (b : B)
]

Of course, we can introduce a notation for this type after it is defined:

notation 1 Sum : A "⊔" B ≔ Sum A B

But it is not currently possible to use a notation during the definition.

Datatypes can be recursive, meaning the inputs of a constructor can involve the datatype itself. For instance, we have the natural numbers:

def ℕ : Type ≔ data [
| zero.
| suc. (_ : ℕ)
]

and the type of lists:

def List (A:Type) : Type ≔ data [
| nil.
| cons. (x : A) (xs: List A)
]

For consistency, such occurrences should be strictly positive, but this is not yet checked. The parameters of a recursive datatype can be "non-uniform", meaning that occurrences of the datatype in the inputs of a constructor (as opposed to the output) can be applied to different parameters.

A datatype can have zero constructors, yielding an empty type:

def ⊥ : Type ≔ data [ ]

Finally, a datatype can also have indices, which are arguments of its type that are not abstracted over (either as parameters, or with ↦ after the ≔) before issuing the data keyword. In this case, all the constructors must include an explicit output type that specifies the values of the indices for that constructor (and also includes all the parameters explicitly, although these cannot differ between constructors). For instance, we have vectors (length-indexed lists):

def Vec (A:Type) : ℕ → Type ≔ data [
| nil. : Vec A zero.
| cons. : (n:ℕ) → A → Vec A n → Vec A (suc. n)
]

As always for parameters of def, this is equivalent to

def Vec : Type → ℕ → Type ≔ A ↦ data [
| nil. : Vec A zero.
| cons. : (n:ℕ) → A → Vec A n → Vec A (suc. n)
]

In particular, in the latter case A is still a parameter in the datatype sense, even though it does not appear to the left of the typing colon for Vec, because it is abstracted over before the data keyword.

The other classic example of a datatype with an index is the "Jdentity" type, in either Martin-Löf style:

def Jd (A:Type) : A → A → Type ≔ data [
| rfl. (a:A) : Jd A a a
]

or Paulin-Möhring style:

def Jd (A:Type) (a:A) : A → Type ≔ data [
| rfl. : Jd A a a
]

Applying constructors

A constructor, meaning an identifier ending with a period but containing no internal periods, can be applied to some number of arguments like a function, and then typechecked at a datatype that contains such a constructor. For instance, zero. and suc. zero. and suc. (suc. zero.) all typecheck at ℕ.

Constructors check rather than synthesizing. As usual with checking terms, one constructor application can check at many different datatypes. As a simple and common example, nil. typechecks at List A for any type A. This makes it clear that, unlike an ordinary function application, a constructor application cannot synthesize, as there is no way to guess from nil. what the type A should be. Moreover, unlike in some other languages, the parameter A is not even an "implicit argument" of the constructor; the only way to make nil. synthesize is to ascribe it as nil. : List A. Similarly, inl. a typechecks at A ⊔ B for any type B.

Constructors must always be applied to all of their arguments. For instance, one cannot write cons. x : List A → List A. You have to η-expand it: (xs ↦ cons. x xs) : List A → List A. This might be improved in future.

Numeral and list notations

Natural number literals such as 0, 7, and 23 are expanded at parse time into applications of the constructors suc. and zero.. There is no built-in datatype with these constructors, but of course the user can define ℕ as above, in which case for instance 3 : ℕ is equivalent to suc. (suc. (suc. zero.)). But numerals will also typecheck at any other datatype having constructors of the same name.

There is a similar syntax for lists that expands to applications of the constructors nil. and cons.: a list like [> x, y, z >] expands to cons. x (cons. y (cons. z nil.)). Thus this typechecks at List A, as defined above, if x, y, and z belong to A.

The arrows > in the notation indicate that this is a "forwards" list. There is a dual notation [< x, y, z <] for backwards lists that expands to snoc. (snoc. (snoc. emp. x) y) z, which therefore typechecks at a type of backwards lists defined as

def Bwd (A:Type) : Type ≔ data [
| emp.
| snoc. (xs : Bwd A) (x : A)
]

(Since [ and ] are always their own tokens, it is also possible to put spaces in these notations, such as [ > 1, 2, 3 > ], but this is not recommended.) This notation for lists is tentative and may change. Eventually, this sort of "folding" notation may also be user-definable.

Matching

When a new constant is defined as a function with arguments that belong to datatypes, it can match on such an argument (called the discriminee). For instance, the function that swaps the elements of a binary sum can be written as

def Sum.swap (A B : Type) (x : A ⊔ B) : B ⊔ A ≔ match x [
| inl. a ↦ inr. a
| inr. b ↦ inl. b
]

The | before the first branch is optional. Each branch is determined by one of the constructors of the datatype applied to distinct new "pattern variables" that are then bound in the body of that branch. The body can then proceed to match again on these variables or on other variables. For instance, we have associativity of sums:

def Sum.assoc (A B C : Type) (x : (A ⊔ B) ⊔ C) : A ⊔ (B ⊔ C) ≔ match x [
| inl. y ↦ match y [
  | inl. a ↦ inl. a
  | inr. b ↦ inr. (inl. b)
  ]
| inr. c ↦ inr. (inr. c)
]

By omitting the keyword match and the variable name, it is possible to abstract over a variable and simultaneously match against it (pattern-matching lambda abstraction). Thus, Sum.swap can equivalently be defined as

def Sum.swap (A B : Type) : A ⊔ B → B ⊔ A ≔ [
| inl. a ↦ inr. a
| inr. b ↦ inl. b 
]

A match (of this simple sort) is a checking term. It requires the term being matched against to synthesize, while the bodies of each branch are checking (we will discuss below how the type they are checked against is determined).

Matching and case trees

Matches are case tree nodes, which only reduce if the term being matched against is a constructor form so that one of the branches can be selected. Thus, for instance, Sum.swap x does not reduce unless x is a constructor, and similarly for Sum.assoc (inl. x). This more or less aligns with the behavior of functions defined by pattern-matching in Agda, whereas Coq has to mimic it with simpl nomatch annotations.

However, unlike the other types and constructs we have discussed so far, matches and datatypes do not satisfy any kind of η-conversion. Thus, two functions defined by matching are not equal to each other even if their definitions are identical. For instance, if we define

def neg1 : Bool → Bool ≔ [ true. ↦ false. | false. ↦ true. ]
def neg2 : Bool → Bool ≔ [ true. ↦ false. | false. ↦ true. ]

then neg1 and neg2 are not convertible. By η-expansion, when trying to convert them we do automatically introduce a new variable x and try to compare neg1 x with neg2 x, but neither of these terms reduce since x is not a constructor. In particular, datatypes do not satisfy any kind of η-conversion themselves.

Recursion

A function defined by matching can also be recursive, calling itself in each branch. For instance, we have addition of natural numbers (in one of the possible ways):

def ℕ.plus (m n : ℕ) : ℕ ≔ match m [
| zero. ↦ n
| suc. m ↦ suc. (ℕ.plus m n)
]

notation 4 ℕ.plus : x "+" y ≔ ℕ.plus x y

To ensure termination and consistency, the recursive calls should be on structurally smaller arguments. But currently there is no checking for this, so it is possible to write infinite loops. In fact this is possible even without matching:

def oops : ⊥ ≔ oops

(In this connection, recall that echo fully normalizes its argument before printing it, so echo oops will loop forever. By contrast, this does not usually happen with infinite loops guarded by a match, because matches are case tree nodes, so their branch bodies are not normalized unless their argument is a constructor that selects a particular branch.)

While there is no termination-checking there is coverage-checking. Thus, all the constructors of a datatype must be present in the match. So while you can write infinite loops, your programs shouldn't get stuck.

Multiple matches and deep matches

It is possible to condense a sequence of nested matches into a single one. For example, the above definition of Sum.assoc can be condensed into a single "deep match":

def Sum.assoc (A B C : Type) (x : (A ⊔ B) ⊔ C) : A ⊔ (B ⊔ C) ≔ match x [
| inl. (inl. a) ↦ inl. a
| inl. (inr. b) ↦ inr. (inl. b)
| inr. c        ↦ inr. (inr. c)
]

Similarly, a naive definition of the Boolean conjunction would be:

def andb (x y : Bool) : Bool ≔ match x [
| true.  ↦ match y [
  | true.  ↦ true.
  | false. ↦ false.
  ]
| false. ↦ false.
]

but this can be condensed to a "multiple match":

def andb (x y : Bool) : Bool ≔ match x, y [
| true.  , true.  ↦ true.
| true.  , false. ↦ false.
| false. , _      ↦ false.
]

Here the _ indicates that that value can be anything. It can also be replaced by a variable, which is then bound to the value being matched.

Multiple and deep matches can be combined. In general, for a multiple match on a comma-separated list of a positive number of discriminees, the left-hand side of each branch must be a comma-separated list of the same number of patterns. Each pattern is either a variable, an underscore, or a constructor applied to some number of other patterns. Plain variable patterns are equivalent to let-bindings: match x [ y ↦ M ] is the same as let y ≔ x in M. Multiple and deep matches are (with one exception, discussed below) a purely syntactic abbreviation: the condensed forms are expanded automatically to the nested match forms before even being typechecked.

Multiple and deep patterns can also be used in pattern-matching abstractions. In the case of a multiple match, the number of variables abstracted over is determined by the number of patterns in the branches. Thus, for instance, andb can also be defined by:

def andb : Bool → Bool → Bool ≔ [
| true.  , true.  ↦ true.
| true.  , false. ↦ false.
| false. , _      ↦ false.
]

All the pattern variables of each branch must be distinct: they cannot shadow each other. Allowing them to shadow each other would be a recipe for confusion, because replacing a match by its expanded version alters the order in which variables appear. For instance, the nested match

def prod' (A B : Type) : Type ≔ data [ pair. (_:A) (_:B) ]

def proj31 (A B C : Type) (u : prod' (prod' A B) C) : A ≔ match u [
| pair. (pair. x y) z ↦ x
]

would expand to

def proj31 (A B C : Type) (u : prod' (prod' A B) C) : A ≔ match u [
| pair. H z ↦ match H [
  | (pair. x y) ↦ x
  ]
]

in which z is bound first instead of last. (The intermediate variable H is inserted automatically in the process of expansion, and you will see it in the contexts of holes.)

Matching always proceeds from left to right, so that the matches corresponding to the leftmost discriminee will be on the outside and those corresponding to the rightmost discriminee will be on the inside. Of course, you can re-order the top-level discriminees as you wish when writing a match (an advantage over Agda's pattern-matching). However, if a constructor has multiple arguments which are then matched against deeply, these matches also proceed from left to right, and this cannot be changed within a single multi/deep match. For example:

def andb2 (x : prod' Bool Bool) : Bool ≔ match x [
| pair. true. true.   ↦ true.
| pair. true. false.  ↦ false.
| pair. false. true.  ↦ false.
| pair. false. false. ↦ false.
]

Here the first argument of pair. is matched before the second, producing the following expanded form:

def andb2 (x : prod' Bool Bool) : Bool ≔ match x [
| pair. a b ↦ match a [
  | true. ↦ match b [
    | true. ↦ true.
    | false. ↦ false.
    ]
  | false. ↦ match b [
    | true. ↦ false.
    | false. ↦ false.
    ]
  ]
]

To match on the second argument first, you would have to use a nested match explicitly:

def andb2' (x : prod' Bool Bool) : Bool ≔ match x [
| pair. a b ↦ match b, a [
  | true.  , true.  ↦ true.
  | false. , true.  ↦ false.
  | true.  , false. ↦ false.
  | false. , false. ↦ false.
  ]
]

The patterns in a match are not allowed to overlap. This is in contrast to Agda, which accepts the following definition

-- This is Agda, not Narya
max : Nat → Nat → Nat
max zero    n       = n
max m       zero    = m
max (suc m) (suc n) = suc (max m n)

The analogous Narya code

{` Not valid! `}
def max (x y : ℕ) : ℕ ≔ match x, y [
| zero. , n ↦ n
| m , zero. ↦ m
| suc. m, suc. n ↦ suc. (max m n)
]

produces an error message about overlapping cases. You have to write instead

def max (x y : ℕ) : ℕ ≔ match x, y [
| zero. , n ↦ n
| suc. m, zero. ↦ x
| suc. m, suc. n ↦ suc. (max m n)
]

so that it can be expanded to the nested match

def max (x y : ℕ) : ℕ ≔ match x [
| zero. ↦ y
| suc. m ↦ match y [
  | zero. ↦ x
  | suc. n ↦ suc. (max m n) 
  ]
]

In fact, this expansion is also what Agda does internally, even when presented with the first definition above (see the Agda manual). This means that in Agda, not all the clauses in such a definition may hold definitionally, e.g. max m zero is not convertible with m when m is a variable. For this reason Agda has the --exact-split flag that prevents such clauses. Narya always insists on "exact splits", and this is unlikely to change: we regard it as a feature.

Empty types and refutation cases

As is well-known, it can be tricky to deal with empty types in multiple and deep matches. A naive extension of the treatment of nonempty types can cause information to disappear, and while sometimes this information can be reconstructed, other times it must be indicated explicitly. As a first example, consider the following function defined by nested matches:

def foldinl (x : (A ⊔ A) ⊔ ⊥ ) : A ≔ match x [
| inl. u ↦ match u [
  | inl. a ↦ a
  | inr. a ↦ a
  ]
| inr. v ↦ match v [ ]
]

If we rewrite this as a deep match, each branch of the outer match should be replaced by one branch for each branch of the corresponding inner match; but since the inner match on v has zero branches, this causes the outer branch with pattern inr. v to disappear completely:

def foldinl (x : (A ⊔ A) ⊔ ⊥ ) : A ≔ match x [
| inl. (inl. a) ↦ a
| inl. (inr. a) ↦ a
]

In this example, this is not a problem, because Narya (like other proof assistants) can recognize from the type of x and the fact that there is at least one inl branch that there should also be an inr branch — and once there is an inr branch, it is straightforward to notice that the argument of inr is empty and thus can be matched against without needing any further branches.

This also works for multiple matches:

def P : A ⊔ B → Type ≔ [ inl. _ ↦ ⊤ | inr. _ ↦ ⊥ ]

def foo (u : A ⊔ B) (v : P u) : A ≔ match u, v [
| inl. a, _ ↦ a
]

Again the presence of an inl branch clues Narya in that there should also be an inr branch, and then it can notice that in this branch the type of v becomes empty. The order of variables doesn't matter either:

def foo' (u : A ⊔ B) (v : P u) : A ≔ match v, u [
| _, inl. a ↦ a
]

In general, when cases for one or more constructors are obviously missing from a match, Narya will inspect all the pattern variables and discriminees that would be available in that branch, and if it finds one whose type is empty, it inserts a match against that term. Here by "empty" we mean that it was literally declared as a datatype with no constructors: there is no unification like in Agda to rule out impossible indices (although see the remarks about canonical types defined by case trees, below). This is the exception mentioned above in which the expansion of multiple and deep matches requires some typechecking information: namely, whether the type of some variable is an empty datatype.

As a particular case, if any of the discriminees belong directly to an empty datatype, then all the branches can be omitted. Similarly, an empty pattern-matching lambda abstraction [ ] can be a multivariable function, although in this case there are no branches to indicate the number of arguments; instead Narya inspects the possibly-iterated function type it is being checked at, looking through the domains one at a time until it finds an empty one. Thus the following are both valid:

def bar (x : Bool) (y : ⊥) : ⊥ ≔ match x, y [ ]

def bar' : Bool → ⊥ → ⊥ ≔ [ ]

However, Narya will not perform additional matches in order to expose an inhabitant of an empty datatype (this is probably an undecidable problem in general). For example, consider the following nested match:

def abort2 (u : ⊥ ⊔ ⊥) : A ≔ match u [
| inl. e ↦ match e [ ]
| inr. e ↦ match e [ ]
]

Rewriting this naïvely as as nested match would produce one with zero branches, but trying to write such a match directly fails:

def abort2 (u : ⊥ ⊔ ⊥) : A ≔ match u [ ]

 ￫ error[E1300]
 1 | def abort2 (u : ⊥ ⊔ ⊥) : A ≔ match u [ ]
   ^ missing match clause for constructor inl

This is because in the absence of either an inl or an inr branch, and because the type of u is not syntactically empty (semantically it is empty, but it is not declared as a datatype with zero constructors), Narya can't guess that u has to be matched against in order to expose variables of type ⊥.

One solution to this, of course, is to write the nested match. In fact, only one of its branches is needed, as then the other can be inferred:

def abort2 (u : ⊥ ⊔ ⊥) : A ≔ match u [
| inl. e ↦ match e [ ]
]

Another solution is to use a refutation case: if the body of a branch is a single dot . then Narya will search all of its pattern variables for one belonging to an empty type:

def abort2 (u : ⊥ ⊔ ⊥) : A ≔ match u [
| inl. _ ↦ .
| inr. _ ↦ .
]

And, again, only one branch is necessary:

def abort2 (u : ⊥ ⊔ ⊥) : A ≔ match u [
| inl. _ ↦ .
]

Variable matches

There are several variations of matching based on how type information flows and is refined. Probably the most important kind of matching is when the discriminee is a free variable that belongs to a datatype instance whose indices are distinct free variables not occurring in any of the parameters, and the match is in a checking context. In this case, the output type and the types of all other variables in the context are refined while checking each branch of the match, by substituting the corresponding constructor applied to its pattern variables, and its corresponding indices, for these free variables. This is similar to the behavior of Agda when splitting a definition on a variable.

For example, we can prove that natural number addition is associative:

def ℕ.plus.assoc (m n p : ℕ) : Id ℕ ((m+n)+p) (m+(n+p)) ≔ match m [
| zero. ↦ refl (n+p)
| suc. m' ↦ suc. (ℕ.plus.assoc m' n p)
]

This proof uses observational identity types, which are introduced below. But the point here is that in the suc. branch, the variable m is defined to equal suc. m', and this definition is substituted into the goal type Id ℕ ((m+n)+p) (m+(n+p)), causing both additions to reduce one step. You can see this by inserting a hole in this clause:

def ℕ.plus.assoc (m n p : ℕ) : Id ℕ ((m+n)+p) (m+(n+p)) ≔ match m [
| zero. ↦ refl (n+p)
| suc. m' ↦ ?
]

     hole ?0 generated:
     
     n : ℕ
     p : ℕ
     m' : ℕ
     m ≔ suc. m' : ℕ
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------
     refl ℕ (suc. ((m' + n) + p)) (suc. (m' + (n + p)))

As an example with indices, we can define appending of vectors:

def Vec.append (A : Type) (m n : ℕ) (v : Vec A m) (w : Vec A n) : Vec A (ℕ.plus m n) ≔ match v [
| nil. ↦ w
| cons. k a u ↦ cons. (ℕ.plus k n) a (Vec.append A k n u w)
]

Here the match against v falls into this case of matching because v and the index m of its type Vec A m are both free variables. Then in the two branches, not only is v specialized to the constructor, the variable m is also specialized to the index value associated to that constructor, namely zero. in the first branch and suc. k in the second. Again, you can see this with a hole:

def Vec.append (A : Type) (m n : ℕ) (v : Vec A m) (w : Vec A n) : Vec A (ℕ.plus m n) ≔ match v [
| nil. ↦ w
| cons. k a u ↦ ?
]

     hole ?1 generated:
     
     A : Type
     n : ℕ
     w : Vec A n
     k : ℕ
     m ≔ suc. k : ℕ
     a : A
     u : Vec A k
     v ≔ cons. k a u : Vec A (suc. k)
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------
     Vec A (suc. (k + n))

(Note that the body of the second branch typechecks because ℕ.plus (suc. k) n reduces to suc. (ℕ.plus k n), which is why we defined addition of natural numbers as we did. The other addition of natural numbers, by recursion on the second argument, instead aligns with appending of backwards vectors.)

The fact that the indices cannot occur in the parameters prevents us, for instance, from proving Axiom K. Thus it is even less general than Agda's --without-K matching, and hence also ensures consistency with univalence. In the future we may implement a more general unification-based condition like Agda's.

Non-dependent matches

It is also possible to match against a term that is not a free variable, or whose indices are not distinct free variables or occur in the parameters. In this case Narya cannot guess how to refine the output type or other variables in the context, so it doesn't. The term being matched against is not defined to equal anything (that doesn't even make sense); instead the pattern variables in each branch are simply introduced as new free variables unrelated to any previous ones, and the output type remains the same in each branch. As a simple example, we can prove ex falso quodlibet without a helper function:

def ⊥ : Type ≔ data [ ]

def efq (A C : Type) (a : A) (na : A → ⊥) : C ≔ match na a [ ]

Note that matching against a let-bound variable is equivalent to matching against its value, so it falls under this category.

The fact that this kind of match uses the same syntax as the previous one means that if you intend to do a variable match, as above, but the conditions on the match variable and its indices are not satisfied, then Narya will fall back to trying this kind of match. You will then probably get an error message due to the fact that the goal type didn't get refined in the branches the way you were expecting it to. Narya tries to help you find bugs of this sort by emitting a hint when that sort of fallback happens. If you really did mean to write a non-dependent match, you can silence the hint by writing match M return _ ↦ _ (see the next sort of match, below).

A variable match can only check, but a non-dependent match can also synthesize. This requires the body of the first branch to synthesize a type that does not depend on any of its pattern variables; then the other branches are checked against that same type, and it is the type synthesized by the whole match statement. Writing a match that could have been a variable match but in a synthesizing context will also cause an automatic fallback to non-dependent matching, with a hint emitted.

Like the ordinary match command, a pattern-matching abstraction like def pred : ℕ → ℕ ≔ [ zero. ↦ zero. | suc. n ↦ n ] always attempts to generate a match against a variable, and falls back to a non-dependent match if this fails (e.g. if the domain does not have fully general indices).

Explicitly dependent matches

Although Narya can't guess how to refine the output type when matching against a general term, you can tell it how to do so by writing match M return x ↦ P. Here x ↦ P (where P can involve x) is a type family (called the motive) depending on a variable x belonging to the datatype (the type of M). If this datatype has indices, then variables to be bound to the indices must be included in the abstraction as well, e.g. match V return i v ↦ P for matching against a vector; this ensures that the motive of the elimination is fully general over the indexed datatype family. Thus, this kind of match has roughly the same functionality as Coq's match M in T i as x return P.

Each branch of such a match is checked at the type obtained by substituting the corresponding constructor for x in the motive P. The entire match synthesizes the result of substituting the discriminee M for x in the motive P. For example, we could prove associativity of addition more verbosely as follows:

def ℕ.plus.assoc (m n p : ℕ) : Id ℕ ((m+n)+p) (m+(n+p))
  ≔ match m return x ↦ Id ℕ ((x+n)+p) (x+(n+p)) [
  | zero. ↦ refl (n+p)
  | suc. m' ↦ suc. (ℕ.plus.assoc m' n p)
  ]

As usual, the variables bound in the motive can be written as underscores if they are not used; thus with match M return _ ↦ P you can specify a constant motive explicitly. This is equivalent to ascribing the entire match to type P, but it forces the match to be a non-dependent one. You can also write match M return _ ↦ _ in a checking context (with the correct number of variables for the indices, if any) to indicate that the output type is intentionally constant, silencing any hints about fallback, without having to specify that output type explicitly.

A match with an explicit motive cannot have more than one discriminee. It would be rather complicated to work out, and indicate syntactically, the dependence of such a motive on all the discriminees. Of course, you can write your own nested sequence of matches. However, deep matching on one discriminee is still available with an explicit motive. Upon expansion, only the outermost match will retain the explicit motive, the inner matches becoming implicit.

Note that while this kind of match provides a way to explicitly refine the output type when matching against a non-variable term, unlike a variable match, it does not do anything to the types of other variables in the context. If you want their types to also be refined in the branches when doing an explicitly dependent match, you have to use the convoy pattern as in Coq.

Matches in terms and case trees

The other case tree constructs we have discussed, such as abstraction and tuples, can also occur in arbitrary locations in a term. The same is true for matches, but the behavior of such matches is somewhat subtle.

If match were an ordinary kind of term syntax, Narya would have to be able to check whether two match expressions are equal. Matches don't satisfy η-conversion, so such an equality-check would have to descend into the branch bodies, and this would require normalizing those bodies. Now suppose a function were defined recursively using a match outside its case tree; then it would evaluate to a match expression even if its argument is not a constructor, and it would appear itself in one of the branches of that match expression; thus, this would lead to an infinite regress of normalization. This is probably not an impossible problem to solve (e.g. Coq has fixpoint terms and match terms and manages to check equality), but it would be complicated and does not seem worth the trouble.

Narya's solution is similar to that of Agda: matches outside case trees are generative. (Note that matches inside case trees are also generative in the sense that all constants defined by case trees are generative.) Each textual occurrence of a match is, in effect, lifted to a top-level definition (actually, a metavariable) which contains the match inside its case tree, and therefore doesn't reduce to anything unless the discriminee is a constructor. In particular, therefore, two such matches, even if they look identical, generate distinct lifted top-level definitions and thus are not definitionally equal (until their discriminees become constructors and they reduce to corresponding branches). This sort of lifting allows us to say that, technically, match is only allowed in case trees, and any occurrences outside of case trees are silently elaborated into case trees.

Narya attempts to be "smart" about such lifting in a couple of ways. Firstly (and perhaps obviously), once a match is encountered in a term and lifted to the case tree of a top-level definition, that case tree continues as usual into the branches of the match, including all operations that are valid in case trees such as abstractions, tuples, and other matches, until it reaches a leaf that can't be a case tree node. Thus, reduction of such a match is blocked not only on its own discriminee, but on those of all directly subsequent matches appearing in its branches.

Secondly, if a match appears directly as the value of a let binding (or nested only inside other case tree constructs), then the entire value of the let-binding is lifted to top-level as a case tree definition, and then bound locally to the let variable. Thus, let can be treated like a local version of def, defining a function locally by a case tree that doesn't reduce until applied to enough arguments, field projections, and constructors. Unlike a def, however, the default behavior of let is to interpret its argument as a term rather than a case tree: it only interprets its argument as a case tree if there are case-tree-only constructs like match that would be included in it under such an interpretation. Thus, for instance,

def point : ℕ × ℕ 
  ≔ let p : ℕ × ℕ ≔ (1,2) in 
    p
     
echo point

will print (1,2), in contrast to how def point : ℕ × ℕ ≔ (1,2) would be printed simply as point since the tuple would be part of the case tree (unless the product type × is transparent or translucent). But, for instance, if we define a function locally to pass to some other functional, that local function can be defined by matching:

def sq (f : ℕ → ℕ) : ℕ → ℕ ≔ x ↦ f (f x)

def sqdec1 (x : ℕ) : ℕ ≔
  let dec : ℕ → ℕ ≔ y ↦ match y [ zero. ↦ zero. | suc. n ↦ n ] in
  sq dec x

Such local functions are very like Agda's where clauses. They cannot yet be defined with parameter syntax (e.g. "let dec (y:ℕ) : ℕ ≔"), but we can use a pattern-matching lambda for a one-variable function:

def sqdec2 (x : ℕ) : ℕ ≔
  let dec : ℕ → ℕ ≔ [ zero. ↦ zero. | suc. n ↦ n ] in
  sq dec x

Of course, we can also just pass the pattern-matching lambda directly as a term on its own:

def sqdec3 ≔ sq [ zero. ↦ zero. | suc. n ↦ n ]

However, a let-bound local function can use a let rec instead to define a local recursive function, which is not possible with a pattern-matching lambda:

def sqdbl (x : ℕ) : ℕ ≔
  let rec dbl : ℕ → ℕ ≔ y ↦ match y [ zero. ↦ zero. | suc. n ↦ suc. (suc. (dbl n)) ] in
  sq dbl x

In fact, let rec is always treated generatively and lifted to top-level like an ordinary let that contains a match. Indeed, in the absence of something like a "fixpoint" operator there is no other possibility, as there is no term syntax for it to evaluate to.

Currently, such local case trees are not printed very comprehensibly if they "escape" from their site of definition. For instance:

axiom z : ℕ

echo sqdec2 z

prints something like _let.0.dec{…} (_let.0.dec{…} z), where the number is a metavariable counter. The name _let.0.dec is not a valid user-defined identifier since it begins with an underscore, and so this notation is not re-parseable; but it indicates that there is some locally defined function, which was called dec where it was defined but is not in scope any more, and is being applied twice to the argument z. The notation {…} is like that used for a hole, indicating that this local function might also have an un-notated substitution applied to the context in which it was defined. As noted above, like any other global constant defined by a case tree, _let.0.dec does not evaluate at all unless it reaches a leaf of its case tree; thus _let.0.dec{…} (_let.0.dec{…} z) does not reduce further since z is not a constructor. (But sqdec (suc. z) will, of course, reduce once to _let.0.dec{…} z.)

As noted above, such local case trees are generative: textually identical definitions given in two different places will produce unequal values.

def dec1_is_dec2 ≔ 
  let dec : ℕ → ℕ ≔ [ zero. ↦ zero. | suc. n ↦ n ] in
  let dec1 ≔ dec in
  let dec : ℕ → ℕ ≔ [ zero. ↦ zero. | suc. n ↦ n ] in
  let dec2 ≔ dec in
  Jd (ℕ → ℕ) dec1 dec2

def fails : dec1_is_dec2 ≔ rfl.

 ￫ error[E1003]
 1 | def fails : dec1_is_dec2 ≔ rfl.
   ^ index
       _let.1.dec{…}
     of constructor application doesn't match the corresponding index
       _let.2.dec{…}
     of datatype instance

Note that both local functions are called _let.N.dec based on their name when defined, but their metavariable counters are different, and they are unequal.

A match not occuring inside any let value doesn't even have a user-assigned name like dec, so it is printed only with a number. For instance, echo sqdec3 from above will print something like sq (H ↦ _match.3{…}). Note that the dependence of the match on the variable (which Narya named H) is not even indicated (it is hidden in the context substitution {…}). However, the advantage of matches of this sort is that, unlike the value of a let-bound variable, they can check rather than synthesize.

The printing of local case trees will hopefully be improved somewhat in future, but there is a limit to how much improvement is possible. Moreover, overuse of local case trees can make it difficult to prove theorems about a function: facts one may need about its components cannot easily be separated out into lemmas since the pieces cannot easily be referred to. Thus, while this sort of code can be convenient for programming, and in simple cases (such as match e [ ] to fill any checking context, given any e:⊥), it is often better eschewed in favor of additional explicit global helper functions. For this reason, Narya currently emits a hint whenever it detects a "bare" case-tree-only construct and interprets it in this way.

Codatatypes and comatching

A codatatype is superficially similar to a record type: it has a list of fields (which in this case we sometimes call methods), each with a type, which are projected out (or "called") using the same syntax x .method. The primary differences are:

Codatatypes can be (co)recursive: the output type of each method can involve the codatatype itself. (Such occurrences ought to be strictly positive, but currently there is no check for that. In fact, there is not yet even a check that rules out recursion in record types, but there will be.)
Codatatypes do not satisfy η-conversion (this being undecidable in the recursive case).
Elements of codatatypes are defined by comatches, which are like tuples but can be recursive, use a syntax more akin to matches, and are restricted to case trees.

Defining codatatypes

Here is a corecursive definition of the codatatype of infinite streams:

def Stream (A:Type) : Type ≔ codata [
| x .head : A
| x .tail : Stream A
]

That is, we use brackets and bars instead of parentheses and commas. Moreover, instead of writing field names like variables as in a record type, we write them as method calls applied to a variable. This variable is then bound in the body to belong to the codatatype, and the values of previous fields are be accessed through it. For instance, a codata version of Σ-types would be written

def codata-Σ (A : Type) (B : A → Type) : Type ≔ codata [
| x .fst : A
| x .snd : B (x .fst)
]

It is often helpful to think of a codatatype as akin to an interface in an object-oriented programming language, in which case the variable x is like the this or self pointer by which an object refers to itself. Of course an interface in a simply-typed language does not need a self-pointer to specify the types of its methods, but in a dependently typed language it does. In higher-dimensional type theories, the presence of this variable can be used in other ways than simply accessing previously declared methods, such as in the coinductive definition of semi-simplicial types (see below).

Copattern matching

Elements of coinductive types are introduced by comatches, which are like tuples except for the syntax and the fact that they can be (co)recursive:

def Fibonacci (a b : ℕ) : Stream ℕ ≔ [
| .head ↦ a
| .tail ↦ Fibonacci b (ℕ.plus a b)
]

In addition, unlike tuples, comatches are a part of case trees but not of ordinary terms. Thus, they never evaluate to anything until a method is called. This is essential to ensure termination in the presence of corecursion; otherwise Fibonacci 1 1 would spin forever computing the entire infinite sequence. (It is also why codatatypes do not have η-conversion.) It is often helpful to think of a constant defined by comatching as an (immutable) object implementing an interface, with the parameters of that constant being its "private member variables".

(As a bit of syntactic trivia, note that [] is ambiguous: it could denote either a pattern-matching lambda on a datatype with no constructors, or a copattern-match into a codatatype with no methods. Fortunately, since both possibilities are checking rather than synthesizing, and function-types and codatatypes are disjoint, the ambiguity is resolved by bidirectional typechecking.)

Canonical types defined by case trees

By a canonical type we mean a universe, function-type, record type, datatype, or codatatype, of which the first two are built in and the latter three are all user-defined. So far, all our definitions of new canonical types (record types, datatypes, and codatatypes) may have been abstracted over parameters, but otherwise the keyword sig or data has occurred immediately after the ≔.

However, in fact a canonical type declaration can appear anywhere in a case tree! For example, here is another definition of length-indexed lists, which we call "covectors". Now instead of the length being an index, it is a parameter over which we recurse:

def Covec (A:Type) (n:ℕ) : Type ≔ match n [
| zero. ↦ sig ()
| suc. n ↦ sig (
  car : A,
  cdr : Covec A n
)]

Thus, Covec A 0 is a unit type, Covec A 1 is isomorphic to A (definitionally! since record types have η-conversion), Covec A 2 is isomorphic to A × A, and so on.

This is very similar to, but subtly different from, the following definition that could be given in Coq or Agda:

def Covec' (A:Type) (n:ℕ) : Type ≔ match n [
| zero. ↦ ⊤
| suc. n ↦ A × Covec' A n
]

The two are definitionally isomorphic. The difference is that Covec' A n reduces when n is a constructor, while Covec A n is already a canonical type no matter what n is; it's just that when n is a constructor we know how it behaves. For instance, Covec' A 2 reduces to A × (A × ⊤), whereas Covec A 2 does not reduce but we can still typecheck (a, (b, ())) at it. This sort of "recursively defined canonical type" helps maintain information about the meaning of a type, just like using a custom record type rather than a nested Σ-type; eventually we hope it will be helpful for unification and typeclass inference.

As another example, once we have an identity type Id (which could be Jd, or an observational identity type) we can define the homotopy-theoretic tower of truncation levels:

def trunc_index : Type ≔ data [ minustwo. | suc. (_ : trunc_index) ]

def IsTrunc (n:ℕ) (A:Type) : Type ≔ match n [
| minustwo. ↦ sig ( center : A, contr : (x:A) → Id A center x )
| suc. n ↦ sig ( trunc_id : (x y : A) → IsTrunc n (Id A x y) )
]

Definitions of datatypes by recursion can sometimes be used in place of indexed datatypes. In particular, this can sometimes be a good way of getting around Narya's lack of unification for indices in pattern-matching. For example, if we define the standard finite types as an indexed datatype:

def Fin : ℕ → Type ≔ data [
| zero. : (n : ℕ) → Fin (suc. n)
| suc.  : (n : ℕ) → Fin n → Fin (suc. n)
]

then matching against an element of Fin n will only refine the goal and context if the index n is a free variable. This means we need technical circumlocutions even to prove that, for instance, Fin zero. is empty. However, we can instead define Fin recursively:

def Fin : ℕ → Type ≔ [
| zero.  ↦ data [ ]
| suc. n ↦ data [ zero. | suc. (_ : Fin n) ]
]

Now Fin zero., while it is canonical and doesn't reduce to anything, can also be proven to be empty by direct matching:

def Fin.zero_empty : Fin zero. → ⊥ ≔ [ ]

Similarly, we can do a deep match against particular finite types:

def count_Bool2 : Fin 4 → Bool × Bool ≔ [
| zero. ↦ (true., true.)
| suc. zero. ↦ (true., false.)
| suc. (suc. zero.) ↦ (false., true.)
| suc. (suc. (suc. zero.)) ↦ (false., false.)
]

Here we also see another advantage of the recursive approach: the index n is not an argument of the constructors, so the syntax is much simpler. In the inductive approach we would have to write suc. 3 (suc. 2 (zero. 1)) for "2" in Fin 4, and there are not yet any implicit arguments or unification.

Like match and comatch, the constructs sig, data, and codata can technically only occur in case trees, so if they appear outside a top-level case tree or let binding they are automatically lifted to a top-level case tree. Also like match and comatch, they are generative, and when they occur outside a top-level case tree they are not printed comprehensibly. For example:

def foo : ⊤ ≔
  let A : Type ≔ sig () in
  let B : Type ≔ sig () in
  let f : A → B ≔ x ↦ x in
  ()

 ￫ error[E0401]
 4 |   let f : A → B ≔ x ↦ x in
   ^ term synthesized type
       _let.0.A
     but is being checked against type
       _let.1.B

Thus, it is probably ill-advised to use such "on-the-fly" definitions of canonical types very much. However, it may sometimes be convenient to, for example, pass a custom type like data [ red. | green. | blue. ] directly as an argument to some other function. Types defined directly on the fly like this cannot be recursive, so in practice their usefulness is mostly restricted to record types and enumerated types (which could, in theory, also be printed more comprehensibly, and even treated non-generatively). However, local recursive types can be defined with let rec, e.g. let rec ℕ : Type ≔ data [ zero. | suc. (_:ℕ) ] in ....

Mutual definitions

A block of constants can be defined mutually. This means that first all of their types are checked, in order, so that the types of later constants in the block may refer to earlier constants (but using only their types, not their definitions). Then their definitions are checked, again in order, so that the definitions of later constants may use the definitions of earlier ones (as well as the types of arbitrary ones). Because canonical types are just a kind of definition, the same syntax for mutual definitions encompasses mutually recursive functions, mutually inductive types, inductive-inductive types, and even inductive-recursive types and functions. Furthermore, all these kinds of mutual definitions can be encoded as single definitions using record-types (but the explicit mutual syntax is usually more congenial).

The syntax for a mutual block of definitions looks just like a sequence of ordinary def commands, except that the second and later ones use the keyword and instead of def. This is similar to the syntax of ML-like programming languages and Coq, and in contrast to Agda's style in which declarations and definitions can be mixed arbitrarily as long as each constant is declared before it is defined. We prefer to keep the declaration of the type of each constant next to its definition, and make it clear textually which blocks of constants are defined mutually, at the price of allowing the definition of a constant to refer to others whose type is declared later textually in the same block.

An entire mutual block constitutes a single command, since it is impossible to typecheck any part of it individually. It is nevertheless usual to put a blank line in between the definitions in a mutual block, although note that this cannot be done in interactive mode since a blank line ends the command.

Like any definition, the constants in a mutual block can be defined using the synthesizing form of def that omits their type. However, this is of limited usefulness, since then they cannot be used while typechecking other constants in the block, as their types are not yet known at that point.

We now give a few examples to illustrate the possibilities of mutual definitions, along with their encodings using records.

Mutual recursion

We can define the Boolean predicates even and odd on the natural numbers:

def even : ℕ → Bool ≔ [
| zero.  ↦ true.
| suc. n ↦ odd n
]

and odd : ℕ → Bool ≔ [
| zero.  ↦ false.
| suc. n ↦ even n
]

Thus, for instance, even 4 reduces to true.

Encoded as a single definition, this looks like the following.

def even_odd : (ℕ → Bool) × (ℕ → Bool) ≔ (
  [ zero. ↦ true.  | suc. n ↦ even_odd .1 n ],
  [ zero. ↦ false. | suc. n ↦ even_odd .0 n ])

Here we have used a binary product type, but in more complicated cases when doing such encoding, it may be helpful to define a custom record-type first in which the bundled family of mutually recursive functions lives.

Mutual induction

The Type-valued predicates Even and Odd can be defined similarly:

def Even : ℕ → Type ≔ data [
| even_zero. : Even zero.
| even_suc. : (n:ℕ) → Odd n → Even (suc. n)
]

and Odd : ℕ → Type ≔ data [
| odd_suc. : (n:ℕ) → Even n → Odd (suc. n)
]

Now Even 4 doesn't reduce to anything, but it belongs to an indexed inductive type family, and can be inhabited by the term even_suc. 3 (odd_suc. 2 (even_suc. 1 (odd_suc. 0 even_zero.))).

The fact that canonical type declarations can appear as part of case trees means that these can also be encoded as a single definition:

def Even_Odd : (ℕ → Type) × (ℕ → Type) ≔ (
  data [
  | even_zero. : Even_Odd .0 zero.
  | even_suc. : (n:ℕ) → Even_Odd .1 n → Even_Odd .0 (suc. n) ],
  data [
  | odd_suc. : (n:ℕ) → Even_Odd .0 n → Even_Odd .1 (suc. n) ])

Recall that in Narya a third possibility is a recursive definition of families of canonical types:

def Even' : ℕ → Type ≔ [
| zero. ↦ sig ()
| suc. n ↦ sig (even_suc : Odd' n)
]
and Odd' : ℕ → Type ≔ [
| zero. ↦ data []
| suc. n ↦ sig (odd_suc : Even' n)
]

In this case, Even' 4 doesn't reduce to anything, but it is definitionally a singleton, with unique inhabitant (_ ≔ (_ ≔ (_ ≔ (_ ≔ ())))).

Inductive-inductive families

An inductive-inductive definition consists of several type families defined by mutual induction, of which the types of later ones may depend on the previous ones. For example, here is a definition of the bare bones of the syntax of type theory (contexts and types) that often appears as an example of induction-induction:

def ctx : Type ≔ data [
| empty.
| ext. (Γ : ctx) (A : ty Γ)
]

and ty (Γ : ctx) : Type ≔ data [
| base.
| pi. (A : ty Γ) (B : ty (ext. Γ A))
]

Note that the context Γ is a non-uniform parameter of the datatype ty. Here is its encoding as a single definition:

def ctx_ty : Σ Type (X ↦ (X → Type)) ≔ (
  ctx ≔ data [
  | empty.
  | ext. (Γ : ctx_ty .0) (A : ctx_ty .1 Γ) ],
  ty ≔ Γ ↦ data [
  | base.
  | pi. (A : ctx_ty .1 Γ) (B : ctx_ty .1 (ext. Γ A)) ])

Inductive-recursive definitions

An inductive-recursive definition consists of one or more type families defined by induction together with one or more functions defined by recursion, in a way that refer to each other. For instance, here is an inductive-recursive universe that contains the Booleans and is closed under Π-types:

def uu : Type ≔ data [
| bool.
| pi. (A : uu) (B : el A → uu)
]

and el : uu → Type ≔ [
| bool. ↦ Bool
| pi. A B ↦ (x : el A) → el (B x)
]

Because a case tree can include canonical type declarations in some branches and ordinary (co)recursive definitions in other branches, we can also encode this as a single definition:

def uu_el : Σ Type (X ↦ (X → Type)) ≔ (
  uu ≔ data [
  | bool.
  | pi. (A : uu_el .0) (B : uu_el .1 A → uu_el .0) ],
  el ≔ [
  | bool. ↦ Bool
  | pi. A B ↦ (x : uu_el .1 A) → uu_el .1 (B x) ])

Mutually recursive let-bindings

Mutual recursive families of local bindings can also be defined by following let rec with and. For instance, as a silly example we can define even without making odd globally visible:

def even (n : ℕ) : Bool ≔
  let rec even : ℕ → Bool ≔ [ zero. ↦ true. | suc. n ↦ odd n ]
  and odd : ℕ → Bool ≔ [ zero. ↦ false. | suc. n ↦ even n]
  in
  even n

Note that although the outer global def can (like any def) refer to itself recursively, the locally-bound even shadows the global one, so that even in the final line refers to the local one.

Here be dragons

As can be seen from these examples, Narya's facility for mutual definitions is comparable to Agda's in flexibility and power. Also like Agda, Narya currently permits even more radical things such as nested datatypes:

def Bush (A:Type) : Type ≔ data [
| leaf.
| cons. (_ : A) (_ : Bush (Bush A))
]

and poorly understood things such as mutual families of definitions including both inductive and coinductive types and both recursive and corecursive functions. As noted above, we have not yet implemented positivity, termination, or productivity checkers, so it is easy to create inconsistencies even without these more radical features. Eventually, we intend the default to be a "safe mode" that restricts mutual definitions to combinations that are known to be consistent and have understood semantics, although this could be turned off by a flag.

Parametric Observational Type Theory

There are many ways in which a type theory can be "higher-dimensional", by which we include homotopy type theory (specifically, Higher Observational Type Theory), internally parametric type theories, and displayed type theory. The internal architecture of Narya is set up to eventually permit the user to mix and match multiple such "directions" of higher-dimensionality, but currently this is not realized. At the moment, therefore, there is only one built-in direction, although its behavior is somewhat customizable. We will first describe the current default behavior of this direction, which is binary internal parametricity, and then how it can be modified.

Identity/bridge types of canonical types

Every type A has a binary identity/bridge type denoted Id A x y, and each term x:A has a reflexivity term refl x : Id A x x. (The argument of refl must synthesize.) There is no "transport" for these types (hence "bridge" is really a more appropriate name). But they are "observational" in the sense that the identity/bridge type of a canonical type is another canonical type of the same sort.

For example, Id (A → B) f g is a function-type (x₀ x₁ : A) (x₂ : Id A x₀ x₁) → Id B (f x₀) (g x₁). In particular, refl f is a function of a type (x₀ x₁ : A) (x₂ : Id A x₀ x₁) → Id B (f x₀) (f x₁), witnessing that all functions preserve "equalities" or "relatedness". Thus the operation traditionally denoted ap in homotopy type theory is just refl applied to a function (although since the argument of refl must synthesize, if the function is an abstraction it must be ascribed). Similarly, Id (A × B) u v is a type of pairs of identities, so if we have p : Id A (u .fst) (v .fst) and q : Id B (u .snd) (v .snd) we can form (p,q) : Id (A × B) u v, and so on for other record types, datatypes, and codatatypes.

However, in Narya Id (A → B) f g does not reduce to the ordinary function-type (x₀ x₁ : A) (x₂ : Id A x₀ x₁) → Id B (f x₀) (g x₁): instead it simply behaves like it, in the sense that its elements can be applied like functions and we can define elements of its as abstractions. This should be compared with how Covec A 2 doesn't reduce to A × (A × ⊤) but behaves like it in terms of what its elements are and what we can do with them. In particular, Id (A → B) f g and (x₀ x₁ : A) (x₂ : Id A x₀ x₁) → Id B (f x₀) (g x₁) are definitionally isomorphic, with the functions in both directions being η-expansions f ↦ (x₀ x₁ x₂ ↦ f x₀ x₁ x₂). For most purposes this behavior is just as good as a reduction, and it retains more information about the type, which, as before, is useful for many purposes. (In fact, with our current understanding, it appears to be essential for Narya's normalization and typechecking algorithms.)

The same is true for other canonical types, e.g. Id (A × B) u v does not reduce to Id A (u .fst) (v .fst) × Id B (u .snd) (v .snd), but it is a record type that is definitionally isomorphic to it. Similarly, identity types of codatatypes behave like types of bisimulations: Id (Stream A) s t is a codatatype that behaves as if it were defined by

codata [
| _ .head : Id A (s .head) (t .head)
| _ .tail : Id (Stream A) (s. tail) (t .tail)
]

Individual bisimulations, i.e. elements of Id (Stream A) s t, can then be constructed by comatching and corecursion.

In general, the fields, constructors, or methods of the identity/bridge type of a record type, datatype, or codatatype have the same names as those of the original type, and their types are the identity/bridge types of those of the original.

In the case of datatypes, the boundary (endpoints) of the identity/bridge type behave like indices. Thus, for instance, Id ℕ behaves like an indexed datatype defined by

data [
| zero. : Id ℕ zero. zero.
| suc. : (n₀ n₁ : ℕ) (n₂ : Id ℕ n₀ n₁) → Id ℕ (suc. n₀) (suc. n₁)
]

Identity/bridge types of the universe

According to internal parametricity, we morally think of Id Type A B as being the type A → B → Type of correspondences. (We avoid the word "relation" since it erroneously suggests proposition-valued.) However, according to the above principles, we should expect Id Type A B to only behave like A → B → Type, in that we can apply its elements to a pair of arguments in A and B to get a type, and define its elements by similarly abstracting.

The first is literally true: given R : Id Type A B and a:A, b:B we have R a b : Type. We refer to this as instantiating the higher-dimensional type R. In fact, Id A x y itself is an instantiation, as we have Id A : Id Type A A, which moreover is really just a notational variant of refl A.

For the second there is another wrinkle: we can define elements of Id Type A B by abstracting, but the body of the abstraction must be a newly declared canonical type rather than a pre-existing one. This also seems to be essential to deal with symmetries (see below) in the normalization and typechecking algorithm. Moreover, the current implementation allows this body to be a record type or codatatype, but not a datatype, and it does not permit other case tree operations in between such as pattern-matching.

For record types, there is a syntax that reflects this restriction: instead of the expected x y ↦ sig (⋯) we write sig x y ↦ (⋯), explicitly binding all the boundary variables as part of the record type syntax. For example, here is the universal 1-dimensional record type, traditionally called "Gel":

def Gel (A B : Type) (R : A → B → Type) : Id Type A B ≔ sig a b ↦ ( ungel : R a b )

For codatatypes, we simply use the ordinary syntax, but the "self" variable automatically becomes a cube variable of the appropriate dimension (see below).

We plan to lift this restriction in the future, but in practice it is not very onerous. For most applications, the above "Gel" record type can simply be defined once and used everywhere, rather than declaring new higher-dimensional types all the time. Note that because record-types satisfy η-conversion, Gel A B R a b is definitionally isomorphic to R a b. Thus, Id Type A B contains A → B → Type as a "retract up to definitional isomorphism". This appears to be sufficient for all applications of internal parametricity. (Id Type does not itself satisfy any η-conversion rule.)

Heterogeneous identity/bridge types

If B : A → Type, then refl B x₀ x₁ x₂ : Id Type (B x₀) (B x₁). Thus, given y₀ : B x₀ and y₁ : B x₁, we can instantiate this identification at them to obtain a type refl B x₀ x₁ x₂ y₀ y₁. of heterogeneous identifications/bridges relating y₀ and y₁ "along" or "over" x₂.

Such heterogeneous identity/bridge types are used in the computation (up to definitional isomorphism) of identity/bridge types of dependent function types. Specifically, Id ((x:A) → B x) f g acts like a function-type (x₀ x₁ : A) (x₂ : Id A x₀ x₁) → refl B x₀ x₁ x₂ (f x₀) (g x₁). They also appear in identity/bridge types of other canonical types, such as when one field of a record type depends on previous ones. For instance, Id (Σ A B) u v behaves like a record type

sig (
  fst : Id A (u .fst) (v .fst),
  snd : refl B (u .fst) (v .fst) fst (u .snd) (v .snd),
)

More generally, since Σ : (A : Type) (B : A → Type) → Type, we have refl Σ whose type is isomorphic to

(A₀ : Type) (A₁ : Type) (A₂ : Id Type A₀ A₁) (B₀ : A₀ → Type) (B₁ : A₁ → Type)
  (B₂ : refl ((X ↦ X → Type) : Type → Type) A₀ A₁ A₂ B₀ B₁)
  (u₀ : Σ A₀ B₀) (u₁ : Σ A₁ B₁) → Type

and refl Σ A₀ A₁ A₂ B₀ B₁ B₂ u₀ u₁ behaves like a record type

sig (
  fst : A₂ (u₀ .fst) (u₁ .fst),
  snd : B₂ (u₀ .fst) (u₁ .fst) fst (u₀ .snd) (u₁ .snd),
)

Here we have used the fact that the type of B₂ is similarly isomorphic to

(x₀ : A₀) (x₁ : A₁) (x₂ : A₂ x₀ x₁) (y₀ : B₀ x₀) (y₁ : B₁ x₁) → Type

The ascription in the type of B₂ is necessary since the argument of refl must synthesize, which abstractions do not. This can be annoying to write, so an alternative is to use the built-in constant Π:

B₂ : refl Π A₀ A₁ A₂ (x₀ ↦ Type) (x₁ ↦ Type) (x₀ x₁ x₂ ↦ refl Type) B₀ B₁

In particular, this is what Narya uses when printing higher-dimensional function-types (although it also uses cube variables, see below).

Higher-dimensional cubes and degeneracies

Iterating Id or refl multiple times produces higher-dimensional cube types and cubes. For instance, since Id A acts like a function A → A → Type, its identity type or reflexivity type Id (Id A) acts as a function-type

(x₀₀ : A) (x₀₁ : A) (x₀₂ : Id A x₀₀ x₀₁)
  → (x₁₀ : A) (x₁₁ : A) (x₁₂ : Id A x₁₀ x₁₁)
  → (x₂₀ : Id A x₀₀ x₁₀) (x₂₁ : Id A x₀₁ x₁₁) → Type

We can view this as assigning to any boundary for a 2-dimensional square a type of fillers for that square. Similarly, Id (Id (Id A)) yields a type of 3-dumensional cubes, and so on.

There is a symmetry operation sym that acts on at-least-two dimensional cubes, swapping or transposing the last two dimensions. Like refl, if the argument of sym synthesizes, then it synthesizes a symmetrized type; but in this case the argument must synthesize a "2-dimensional" type. (The need to be able to "detect" 2-dimensionality here is roughly what imposes the requirements on our normalization/typechecking algorithm mentioned above.) In addition, unlike refl, an application of sym can also check if its argument does, since the type it is checked against can be "unsymmetrized" to obtain the necessary type for its argument to check against.

Combining versions of refl and sym yields arbitrary higher-dimensional "degeneracies" (from the BCH cube category). There is also a generic syntax for such degeneracies: M⁽¹ᵉ²⁾ or M^(1e2) where the superscript represents the degeneracy, with e denoting a degenerate dimension and nonzero digits denoting a permutation. (The e stands for "equality", since our Id is eventually intended to be the identity type of Higher Observational Type Theory.) In the unlikely event you are working with dimensions greater than nine, you can separate multi-digit numbers and letters with a hyphen, e.g. M⁽¹⁻²⁻³⁻⁴⁻⁵⁻⁶⁻⁷⁻⁸⁻⁹⁻¹⁰⁾ or M^(0-1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8-9-10). This notation can always synthesize if M does, while like sym it can also check if the degeneracy is a "pure permutation", consisting only of digits without any es.

Degeneracies can be extended by identities on the right. For instance, the two degeneracies taking a 1-dimensional object to a 2-dimensional one are denoted 1e and e1, and of these e1 can be written as simply e and coincides with ordinary refl applied to an object that happens to be 1-dimensional.

Degeneracy operations are functorial. For pure symmetries, this means composing permutations. For instance, the "Yang-Baxter equation" holds, equating M⁽²¹³⁾⁽¹³²⁾⁽²¹³⁾ with M⁽¹³²⁾⁽²¹³⁾⁽¹³²⁾, as both reduce to M⁽³²¹⁾. Reflexivities also compose with permutations in a fairly straightforward way, e.g. M⁽ᵉ¹⁾⁽²¹⁾ reduces to M^⁽¹ᵉ⁾.

The principle that the identity/bridge types of a canonical type are again canonical types of the same sort applies also to higher degeneracies, with one exception. Ordinary canonical types are "intrinsically" 0-dimensional, and therefore any operations on them reduce to a "pure degeneracy" consisting entirely of es, e.g. M⁽ᵉᵉ⁾⁽²¹⁾ reduces to simply M⁽ᵉᵉ⁾. These pure degeneracies of canonical types are again canonical types of the same form, as discussed for Id and refl above. However, an intrinsically higher-dimensional canonical type like Gel admits some degeneracies that permute the intrinsic dimension with some of the additional dimensions; the simplest of these is 1e. These degeneracies of a higher-dimensional canonical type are not any longer canonical; but they are isomorphic to a canonical type by the action of a pure symmetry.

For instance, Gel A B R is a 1-dimensional type, belonging to Id Type A B. Thus, we can form the 2-dimensional type (Gel A B R)⁽¹ᵉ⁾, and instantiate it using a₂ : Id A a₀ a₁ and b₂ : Id B b₀ b₁ and r₀ : R a₀ b₀ and r₁ : R a₁ b₁ to get a 0-dimensional type (Gel A B R)⁽¹ᵉ⁾ a₀ b₀ (r₀,) a₁ b₁ (r₁,) a₂ b₂. But this type is not canonical, and in particular not a record type; in particular given M : (Gel A B R)⁽¹ᵉ⁾ a₀ b₀ (r₀,) a₁ b₁ (r₁,) a₂ b₂ we cannot write M .ungel. However, we have sym M : (Gel A B R)⁽ᵉ¹⁾ a₀ a₁ a₂ b₀ b₁ b₂ (r₀,) (r₁,), which doesn't permute the intrinsic dimension 1 with the degenerate dimension e and is therefore a record type, and so we can write sym M .ungel, which has type Id R a₀ a₁ a₂ b₀ b₁ b₂ r₀ r₁. In addition, since (Gel A B R)⁽¹ᵉ⁾ a₀ b₀ (r₀,) a₁ b₁ (r₁,) a₂ b₂ is isomorphic to this record type, it also satisfies an eta-rule: two of its terms M and N are definitionally equal as soon as sym M .ungel and sym N .ungel are.

Cubes of variables

Since there is no unifier and no implicit arguments yet, all the arguments of higher-dimensional cubes and functions must be given explicitly. However, there is a shorthand syntax for higher-dimensional abstractions: instead of x₀ x₁ x₂ ↦ M you can write x ⤇ M (or x |=> M in ASCII). This binds x as a "family" or "cube" of variables whose names are suffixed with face names in ternary notation: x.0 and x.1 and x.2, or in higher dimensions x.00 through x.22 and so on. (The dimension is inferred from the type at which the abstraction is checked.) Note that this is a purely syntactic abbreviation: there is no object "x", but rather there are really three different variables that just happen to have the names x.0 and x.1 and x.2. (There is no potential for collision with user-defined names, since ordinary local variable names cannot contain internal periods. Of course, x.0 can shadow a global definition of a constant 0 in namespace x.)

These "cube variables" also appear automatically when matching against a higher-dimensional version of a datatype. For instance, we can do an encode-decode proof for the natural numbers by matching directly on Id ℕ (using pattern-matching abstractions):

def code : ℕ → ℕ → Type ≔
[ zero. ↦ [ zero. ↦ sig ()
          | suc. n ↦ data [] ]
| suc. m ↦ [ zero. ↦ data []
           | suc. n ↦ sig ( uncode : code m n ) ]]

def decode : (m n : ℕ) → code m n → Id ℕ m n ≔
[ zero. ↦ [ zero. ↦ _ ↦ zero.
          | suc. n ↦ [] ]
| suc. m ↦ [ zero. ↦ []
           | suc. n ↦ p ↦ suc. (decode m n (p .0)) ]]

def encode (m n : ℕ) : Id ℕ m n → code m n ≔
[ zero. ↦ ()
| suc. p ↦ (_ ≔ encode p.0 p.1 p.2)]

Here in the definition of encode, the pattern variable p of the suc. branch is automatically made into a 1-dimensional cube of variables since we are matching against an element of Id ℕ, so in the body we can refer to p.0, p.1, and p.2. In the future, we may implement a dual syntax for simultaneously applying a function to a whole cube of variables of this sort as well.

Similarly, when defining a codatatype lying in a higher universe, the "self" variable automatically becomes a cube variable, so that the boundary of the type is accessible through its faces. For instance, here is a codatatype version of Gel:

def Gel (A B : Type) (R : A → B → Type) : Id Type A B ≔ codata [ x .ungel : R x.0 x.1 ]

Varying the behavior of parametricity

The parametricity described above, which is Narya's default, is binary in that the identity/bridge type Id A x y takes two elements of A as arguments. However, a different "arity" can be specified with the -arity command-line flag. For instance, under -arity 1 we have bridge types Id A x, and under -arity 3 they look like Id A x y z. Everything else also alters according, e.g. under -arity 1 the type Id (A → B) f is isomorphic to (x : A) (x' : Id A x) → Id B (f x), and a cube variable has pieces numbered with only 0s and 1s.

In principle, the arity could be any natural number, but for syntactic reasons Narya currently requires it to be between 1 and 9 inclusive. The problem with arities greater than 9 is that the syntax x.10 for cube variables would become ambiguous: does 10 mean "one-zero" or "ten"? But if you have an application of such a type theory, let us know and we can work out a syntax (although at present we are unaware of any applications of n-ary parametricity for n>2). The problem with arity 0 is that then Id A would belong to Id Type and also be instantiatable to an element of Type, but since this requires no arguments it's not clear what syntax should indicate whether the instantiation has happened. We do expect to solve this problem somehow, since 0-ary parametricity does have potential applications (it is related to nominal type theory).

It is also possible to rename or remove the primitives refl and Id (which, recall, is just another notation for refl), as well as change the letter e used in generic degeneracies. The default behavior is equivalent to the command-line argument -direction e,refl,Id; in general the argument of -direction is a comma-separated list of names, where the first must be a single lowercase letter to be used in generic degeneracies, and the others (if any) are names for the basic degeneracy. For instance, in unary parametricity we might write -arity 1 -direction r,red and think of red x as "x is reducible".

The name of sym cannot be changed or removed, and likewise for the digits used in generic degeneracies to indicate permuted dimensions.

Finally, parametricity can be set to be internal (the default) or external. Setting it to external instead means that dimension-changing degeneracies (including refl, but not sym) can only be applied to closed terms. Since degeneracies also compute fully on closed terms (at least in the "up-to-definitional-isomorphism" sense), we can then more or less think of these operations as meta-operations on syntax rather than intrinsic aspects of the theory. This is the usual meaning of "external parametricity", although Narya's is of course at least partially internalized. (Semantically, what Narya calls "external parametricity" is modeled in a diagram of semi-cubical types, in contrast to internal parametricity which is modeled in cubical types.)

In addition, under external parametricity, axioms are not permitted to be used inside of dimension-changing degeneracies either. The reasoning behind this is that we may want to assume axioms that are inconsistent with parametricity, such as excluded middle, while still making use of external parametricity on other types. (Note that internal parametricity is nonclassical, actively contradicting excluded middle.) It also maintains the principle that assuming an axiom of type A is equivalent to working in a context extended by a variable of type A. However, in the future it may be possible to declare a special kind of "parametric axiom" that does have higher-dimensional versions.

The combination -arity 1 -direction d -external is a version of displayed type theory (dTT), and as such can be selected with the single option -dtt. The primary differences between narya -dtt and the original dTT of the paper are:

Narya currently has no modalities, so display can only be applied to closed terms rather than to the more general □-modal ones.
Narya has symmetries, which in particular (as noted in the paper) makes SST⁽ᵈ⁾ (see below) actually usable.
As noted above, display in Narya computes only up to isomorphism, and in the case of Type only up to retract up to isomorphism.
(A syntactic difference only) Generic degeneracies in Narya must be parenthesized, so we write A⁽ᵈ⁾ instead of Aᵈ.

Higher datatypes and codatatypes

There are many possible kinds of datatypes and codatatypes that make use of higher-dimensional structure. Narya does not yet implement Higher Inductive Types, in which the output of a constructor can be a higher-dimensional version of the datatype, nor the dual sort of "higher coinductive type" in which the input of a method is a higher-dimensional version of the codatatype. However, it does permit the displayed coinductive types of dTT and their generalization to other kinds of parametricity, in which the output of a corecursive method is a higher-dimensional version of the codatatype. This permits, for example, the definition of the type of semi-simplicial types from the dTT paper:

def SST : Type ≔ codata [
| X .z : Type
| X .s : (X .z) → SST⁽ᵈ⁾ X
]

Parametrically discrete types

Discreteness is an experimental (and probably temporary) feature. A (strictly parametrically) discrete type, in the sense meant here, is one whose higher-dimensional versions are all definitionally subsingletons. That is, if b1 : A⁽ᵈ⁾ a and b2 : A⁽ᵈ⁾ a, then b1 and b2 are convertible (this is implemented as an η-rule). Discreteness is currently restricted to arity 1 (including dTT), and can be enabled by the -discreteness flag (which is not included in -dtt). When discreteness is enabled, a mutual family of datatypes will be marked as discrete if

All elements of the mutual family are datatypes; and
The types of all of their parameters, indices, and constructor arguments are either types belonging to the same family or previously defined discrete datatypes.

Of the datatypes mentioned as examples above, the discrete ones are ℕ, Bool, and ⊥. Some other examples of discrete types are integers and binary trees:

def ℤ : Type ≔ data [
| zero.
| suc. (_:ℕ)
| negsuc. (_:ℕ)
]

def btree : Type ≔ data [
| leaf.
| node. (_:btree) (_:btree)
]

A family of datatypes indexed by discrete types can be discrete, such as inequality of natural numbers:

def ℕ.le : (k n : ℕ) → Type := data [
| zero. (n : ℕ) : ℕ.le zero. n
| suc. (k n : ℕ) (_ : ℕ.le k n) : ℕ.le (suc. k) (suc. n)
]

So can a mutual family of types:

def even : ℕ → Type ≔ data [
| zero. : even zero. 
| suc. (n : ℕ) (_ : odd n) : even (suc. n) 
]

and odd : ℕ → Type ≔ data [
| suc. (n : ℕ) (_ : even n) : odd (suc. n)
]

The higher-dimensional versions of a discrete datatype are also still themselves datatypes, so they have constructors and can be matched on. In fact it should be possible to prove internally without -discreteness that these types are always propositionally contractible. In particular, they are inhabited, so discreteness just adds some strictness, making them definitionally singletons. For example, here is the proof that the displayed versions of ℕ are inhabited:

def ℕ.d (n : ℕ) : ℕ⁽ᵈ⁾ n ≔ match n [
| zero. ↦ zero.
| suc. n ↦ suc. (ℕ.d n)
]

Currently, the test for discreteness is performed immediately and only upon completion of the def command that defines a family of datatypes. In particular, if the definition of a datatype contains a hole, it will not be considered discrete, even if the hole is later filled to make the definition one that would have been discrete if given from the get-go. This could in theory be improved, but I am more likely to feel like putting effort into implementing the "correct" replacement for discrete types, namely modally-guarded parametricity such as full dTT.

Remarks on implementation

As is common for normalization-by-evaluation, the implementation uses De Bruijn indices for syntactic terms and De Bruijn levels for semantic values. A little more unusually, however, the De Bruijn indices are "intrinsically well-scoped". This means that the type of terms is parametrized by the length of the context (as a type-level natural number, using GADTs), so that the OCaml compiler ensures statically that De Bruijn indices never go out of scope. Other consistency checks are also ensured statically in a similar way, such as the matching of dimensions for certain types and operators, and scoping and associativity for notations. (The latter is the reason why tightnesses are dyadic rationals: they are represented internally as type-level finite surreal-number sign-sequences, this being a convenient way to inductively define a dense linear order.)

This approach does have the drawback that it requires a fair amount of arithmetic on the natural numbers to ensure well-typedness, which is not only tedious but some of it also ends up happening at run-time. Since type-level natural numbers are represented in unary, this could be a source of inefficiency in the future. However, it has so far proven very effective at avoiding bugs!

Another interesting tool used in the implementation is a technique for writing generic traversal functions for data structures. With heterogeneous type-indexed lists, we can write a single traversal function that can be called with arbitrarily many data structures as input and arbitrarily many as output, thus including in particular map, map2, iter (the 0-output case), iter2, and so on. If this generic traversal is parametrized over a monad, or more generally an applicative functor, then it also includes both left and right folds, possibly combined with maps, and so on. For a simple data structure like lists this is overkill, of course, but for some of the complicated data structures we use (like n-dimensional cubes that are statically guaranteed to have exactly the right number of elements, accessed by giving a face) it saves a lot of work to be able to implement only one traversal.

The source code is organized in directories as follows:

lib/: Most of the code
- lib/util/: Utilities that could in principle be generic libraries
- lib/dim/: Definition of the dimension theory (cube category)
- lib/core/: Syntax, normalization, type-checking, etc.
- lib/parser/: Parsing and printing
bin/: The main executable
test/: Unit tests
- test/testutil/: Utilities used only for white-box testing
- test/white/: White-box tests of the core
- test/parser/: White-box tests of parsing and printing
- test/black/: Black-box tests of the executable

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