code/05_appendix.ipynb

{
 "cells": [
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "![](../images/strange_weather.jpeg)\n",
    "<br>\n",
    "Photo: [*Strange Weather Studio*](https://www.strangeweatherbrooklyn.com/)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "# The Sound of Science\n",
    "### Notebook 5: Appendix\n",
    "#### Adam Zucker\n",
    "---"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "## Contents\n",
    "\n",
    "- **Section 1:** Package and data imports\n",
    "- **Section 2:** Examples of Spotify metrics shortcomings\n",
    "- **Section 3:** Examples of Librosa metrics shortcomings\n",
    "- **Section 4:** Glossary"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "---\n",
    "---\n",
    "### Section 1\n",
    "#### Imports"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 1,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "import numpy as np\n",
    "import pandas as pd\n",
    "import matplotlib.pyplot as plt\n",
    "import seaborn as sns\n",
    "import scipy as sp\n",
    "\n",
    "import os\n",
    "import IPython.display as ipd\n",
    "\n",
    "import librosa as lib\n",
    "import librosa.display as libd"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 2,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
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       "  <thead>\n",
       "    <tr style=\"text-align: right;\">\n",
       "      <th></th>\n",
       "      <th>valence</th>\n",
       "      <th>year</th>\n",
       "      <th>acousticness</th>\n",
       "      <th>artists</th>\n",
       "      <th>danceability</th>\n",
       "      <th>duration_ms</th>\n",
       "      <th>energy</th>\n",
       "      <th>explicit</th>\n",
       "      <th>id</th>\n",
       "      <th>instrumentalness</th>\n",
       "      <th>key</th>\n",
       "      <th>liveness</th>\n",
       "      <th>loudness</th>\n",
       "      <th>mode</th>\n",
       "      <th>name</th>\n",
       "      <th>popularity</th>\n",
       "      <th>release_date</th>\n",
       "      <th>speechiness</th>\n",
       "      <th>tempo</th>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "  </thead>\n",
       "  <tbody>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>0</th>\n",
       "      <td>0.0594</td>\n",
       "      <td>1921</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.982</td>\n",
       "      <td>['Sergei Rachmaninoff', 'James Levine', 'Berli...</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.279</td>\n",
       "      <td>831667</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.211</td>\n",
       "      <td>0</td>\n",
       "      <td>4BJqT0PrAfrxzMOxytFOIz</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.878000</td>\n",
       "      <td>10</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.665</td>\n",
       "      <td>-20.096</td>\n",
       "      <td>1</td>\n",
       "      <td>Piano Concerto No. 3 in D Minor, Op. 30: III. ...</td>\n",
       "      <td>4</td>\n",
       "      <td>1921</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.0366</td>\n",
       "      <td>80.954</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>1</th>\n",
       "      <td>0.9630</td>\n",
       "      <td>1921</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.732</td>\n",
       "      <td>['Dennis Day']</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.819</td>\n",
       "      <td>180533</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.341</td>\n",
       "      <td>0</td>\n",
       "      <td>7xPhfUan2yNtyFG0cUWkt8</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.000000</td>\n",
       "      <td>7</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.160</td>\n",
       "      <td>-12.441</td>\n",
       "      <td>1</td>\n",
       "      <td>Clancy Lowered the Boom</td>\n",
       "      <td>5</td>\n",
       "      <td>1921</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.4150</td>\n",
       "      <td>60.936</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>2</th>\n",
       "      <td>0.0394</td>\n",
       "      <td>1921</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.961</td>\n",
       "      <td>['KHP Kridhamardawa Karaton Ngayogyakarta Hadi...</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.328</td>\n",
       "      <td>500062</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.166</td>\n",
       "      <td>0</td>\n",
       "      <td>1o6I8BglA6ylDMrIELygv1</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.913000</td>\n",
       "      <td>3</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.101</td>\n",
       "      <td>-14.850</td>\n",
       "      <td>1</td>\n",
       "      <td>Gati Bali</td>\n",
       "      <td>5</td>\n",
       "      <td>1921</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.0339</td>\n",
       "      <td>110.339</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>3</th>\n",
       "      <td>0.1650</td>\n",
       "      <td>1921</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.967</td>\n",
       "      <td>['Frank Parker']</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.275</td>\n",
       "      <td>210000</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.309</td>\n",
       "      <td>0</td>\n",
       "      <td>3ftBPsC5vPBKxYSee08FDH</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.000028</td>\n",
       "      <td>5</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.381</td>\n",
       "      <td>-9.316</td>\n",
       "      <td>1</td>\n",
       "      <td>Danny Boy</td>\n",
       "      <td>3</td>\n",
       "      <td>1921</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.0354</td>\n",
       "      <td>100.109</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>4</th>\n",
       "      <td>0.2530</td>\n",
       "      <td>1921</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.957</td>\n",
       "      <td>['Phil Regan']</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.418</td>\n",
       "      <td>166693</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.193</td>\n",
       "      <td>0</td>\n",
       "      <td>4d6HGyGT8e121BsdKmw9v6</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.000002</td>\n",
       "      <td>3</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.229</td>\n",
       "      <td>-10.096</td>\n",
       "      <td>1</td>\n",
       "      <td>When Irish Eyes Are Smiling</td>\n",
       "      <td>2</td>\n",
       "      <td>1921</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.0380</td>\n",
       "      <td>101.665</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "  </tbody>\n",
       "</table>\n",
       "</div>"
      ],
      "text/plain": [
       "   valence  year  acousticness  \\\n",
       "0   0.0594  1921         0.982   \n",
       "1   0.9630  1921         0.732   \n",
       "2   0.0394  1921         0.961   \n",
       "3   0.1650  1921         0.967   \n",
       "4   0.2530  1921         0.957   \n",
       "\n",
       "                                             artists  danceability  \\\n",
       "0  ['Sergei Rachmaninoff', 'James Levine', 'Berli...         0.279   \n",
       "1                                     ['Dennis Day']         0.819   \n",
       "2  ['KHP Kridhamardawa Karaton Ngayogyakarta Hadi...         0.328   \n",
       "3                                   ['Frank Parker']         0.275   \n",
       "4                                     ['Phil Regan']         0.418   \n",
       "\n",
       "   duration_ms  energy  explicit                      id  instrumentalness  \\\n",
       "0       831667   0.211         0  4BJqT0PrAfrxzMOxytFOIz          0.878000   \n",
       "1       180533   0.341         0  7xPhfUan2yNtyFG0cUWkt8          0.000000   \n",
       "2       500062   0.166         0  1o6I8BglA6ylDMrIELygv1          0.913000   \n",
       "3       210000   0.309         0  3ftBPsC5vPBKxYSee08FDH          0.000028   \n",
       "4       166693   0.193         0  4d6HGyGT8e121BsdKmw9v6          0.000002   \n",
       "\n",
       "   key  liveness  loudness  mode  \\\n",
       "0   10     0.665   -20.096     1   \n",
       "1    7     0.160   -12.441     1   \n",
       "2    3     0.101   -14.850     1   \n",
       "3    5     0.381    -9.316     1   \n",
       "4    3     0.229   -10.096     1   \n",
       "\n",
       "                                                name  popularity release_date  \\\n",
       "0  Piano Concerto No. 3 in D Minor, Op. 30: III. ...           4         1921   \n",
       "1                            Clancy Lowered the Boom           5         1921   \n",
       "2                                          Gati Bali           5         1921   \n",
       "3                                          Danny Boy           3         1921   \n",
       "4                        When Irish Eyes Are Smiling           2         1921   \n",
       "\n",
       "   speechiness    tempo  \n",
       "0       0.0366   80.954  \n",
       "1       0.4150   60.936  \n",
       "2       0.0339  110.339  \n",
       "3       0.0354  100.109  \n",
       "4       0.0380  101.665  "
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 2,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "# Importing original Spotify dataframe, before cleaning, to show metric inconsistencies\n",
    "df = pd.read_csv('../data_raw/kg_spotify_master_data.csv')\n",
    "df.head()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 3,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "# Dropping columns unnecessary for the appendix analyses below\n",
    "df.drop(columns=['valence', 'year', 'release_date', 'duration_ms', 'explicit', 'id', 'popularity'], inplace=True)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 4,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "Index(['acousticness', 'artists', 'danceability', 'energy', 'instrumentalness',\n",
       "       'key', 'liveness', 'loudness', 'mode', 'name', 'speechiness', 'tempo'],\n",
       "      dtype='object')"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 4,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "# Displaying remaining columns\n",
    "df.columns"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 5,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "# Reordering columns for easier interpretation\n",
    "df = df[['name', 'artists', 'tempo', 'key', 'mode', 'loudness', 'instrumentalness', 'speechiness', 'acousticness', 'danceability', 'energy', 'liveness']]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "---\n",
    "---\n",
    "### Section 2\n",
    "#### Spotify Metrics"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "Some inconsistent Spotify metrics and how [Spotify](https://developer.spotify.com/documentation/web-api/reference/#object-audiofeaturesobject) defines them."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "- **Speechiness:** Detects the presence of spoken words in a track. The more exclusively speech-like the recording (e.g., talk show, audio book, poetry), the closer to 1.0 the attribute value. Values above 0.66 describe tracks that are probably made entirely of spoken words. Values between 0.33 and 0.66 describe tracks that may contain both music and speech, either in sections or layered, including such cases as rap music. Values below 0.33 most likely represent music and other non-speech-like tracks.\n",
    "- **Instrumentalness:** Predicts whether a track contains vocals. “Ooh” and “aah” sounds are treated as instrumental in this context. Rap or spoken word tracks are clearly “vocal”. The closer the instrumentalness value is to 1.0, the greater likelihood the track contains no vocal content. Values above 0.5 are intended to represent instrumental tracks, but confidence is higher as the value approaches 1.0."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 6,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
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       "      <th>artists</th>\n",
       "      <th>tempo</th>\n",
       "      <th>key</th>\n",
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       "      <th>loudness</th>\n",
       "      <th>instrumentalness</th>\n",
       "      <th>speechiness</th>\n",
       "      <th>acousticness</th>\n",
       "      <th>danceability</th>\n",
       "      <th>energy</th>\n",
       "      <th>liveness</th>\n",
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       "  </thead>\n",
       "  <tbody>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>33738</th>\n",
       "      <td>Woo Hah!! Got You All in Check</td>\n",
       "      <td>['Busta Rhymes']</td>\n",
       "      <td>92.022</td>\n",
       "      <td>1</td>\n",
       "      <td>1</td>\n",
       "      <td>-5.433</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.00000</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.3240</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.0985</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.716</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.924</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.3060</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>56365</th>\n",
       "      <td>Paper Trail$</td>\n",
       "      <td>['Joey Bada$$']</td>\n",
       "      <td>93.620</td>\n",
       "      <td>1</td>\n",
       "      <td>0</td>\n",
       "      <td>-4.103</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.00000</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.2850</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.3390</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.548</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.829</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.5370</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>37264</th>\n",
       "      <td>Retrograde</td>\n",
       "      <td>['James Blake']</td>\n",
       "      <td>77.503</td>\n",
       "      <td>7</td>\n",
       "      <td>0</td>\n",
       "      <td>-11.283</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.10400</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.0372</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.8730</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.533</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.251</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.1340</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>14415</th>\n",
       "      <td>Big Poppa - 2005 Remaster</td>\n",
       "      <td>['The Notorious B.I.G.']</td>\n",
       "      <td>84.487</td>\n",
       "      <td>9</td>\n",
       "      <td>0</td>\n",
       "      <td>-7.220</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.00000</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.2740</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.4320</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.778</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.578</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.1380</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>19208</th>\n",
       "      <td>SLOW DANCING IN THE DARK</td>\n",
       "      <td>['Joji']</td>\n",
       "      <td>88.964</td>\n",
       "      <td>3</td>\n",
       "      <td>1</td>\n",
       "      <td>-7.458</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.00598</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.0261</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.5440</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.515</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.479</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.1910</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>14619</th>\n",
       "      <td>Dear Mama</td>\n",
       "      <td>['2Pac']</td>\n",
       "      <td>84.115</td>\n",
       "      <td>6</td>\n",
       "      <td>1</td>\n",
       "      <td>-7.123</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.00000</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.1030</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.3710</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.773</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.540</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.1310</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>166088</th>\n",
       "      <td>Paranoid Android</td>\n",
       "      <td>['Radiohead']</td>\n",
       "      <td>163.709</td>\n",
       "      <td>5</td>\n",
       "      <td>1</td>\n",
       "      <td>-6.501</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.00591</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.0579</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.0377</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.251</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.848</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.0545</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
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      ],
      "text/plain": [
       "                                  name                   artists    tempo  \\\n",
       "33738   Woo Hah!! Got You All in Check          ['Busta Rhymes']   92.022   \n",
       "56365                     Paper Trail$           ['Joey Bada$$']   93.620   \n",
       "37264                       Retrograde           ['James Blake']   77.503   \n",
       "14415        Big Poppa - 2005 Remaster  ['The Notorious B.I.G.']   84.487   \n",
       "19208         SLOW DANCING IN THE DARK                  ['Joji']   88.964   \n",
       "14619                        Dear Mama                  ['2Pac']   84.115   \n",
       "166088                Paranoid Android             ['Radiohead']  163.709   \n",
       "\n",
       "        key  mode  loudness  instrumentalness  speechiness  acousticness  \\\n",
       "33738     1     1    -5.433           0.00000       0.3240        0.0985   \n",
       "56365     1     0    -4.103           0.00000       0.2850        0.3390   \n",
       "37264     7     0   -11.283           0.10400       0.0372        0.8730   \n",
       "14415     9     0    -7.220           0.00000       0.2740        0.4320   \n",
       "19208     3     1    -7.458           0.00598       0.0261        0.5440   \n",
       "14619     6     1    -7.123           0.00000       0.1030        0.3710   \n",
       "166088    5     1    -6.501           0.00591       0.0579        0.0377   \n",
       "\n",
       "        danceability  energy  liveness  \n",
       "33738          0.716   0.924    0.3060  \n",
       "56365          0.548   0.829    0.5370  \n",
       "37264          0.533   0.251    0.1340  \n",
       "14415          0.778   0.578    0.1380  \n",
       "19208          0.515   0.479    0.1910  \n",
       "14619          0.773   0.540    0.1310  \n",
       "166088         0.251   0.848    0.0545  "
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 6,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "# Displaying a subset of the dataframe that I believe to represent some of the shortcomings in Spotify's 'speechiness' and/or 'instrumentalness' features\n",
    "df.loc[[33738, 56365, 37264, 14415, 19208, 14619, 166088]]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "**ABOVE:**"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": []
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 7,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
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       "  <thead>\n",
       "    <tr style=\"text-align: right;\">\n",
       "      <th></th>\n",
       "      <th>instrumentalness</th>\n",
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       "  </thead>\n",
       "  <tbody>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>count</th>\n",
       "      <td>170653.000000</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>mean</th>\n",
       "      <td>0.167010</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>std</th>\n",
       "      <td>0.313475</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>min</th>\n",
       "      <td>0.000000</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>25%</th>\n",
       "      <td>0.000000</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>50%</th>\n",
       "      <td>0.000216</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>75%</th>\n",
       "      <td>0.102000</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>max</th>\n",
       "      <td>1.000000</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "  </tbody>\n",
       "</table>\n",
       "</div>"
      ],
      "text/plain": [
       "       instrumentalness\n",
       "count     170653.000000\n",
       "mean           0.167010\n",
       "std            0.313475\n",
       "min            0.000000\n",
       "25%            0.000000\n",
       "50%            0.000216\n",
       "75%            0.102000\n",
       "max            1.000000"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 7,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "df[['instrumentalness']].describe()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": []
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 8,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
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       "<table border=\"1\" class=\"dataframe\">\n",
       "  <thead>\n",
       "    <tr style=\"text-align: right;\">\n",
       "      <th></th>\n",
       "      <th>name</th>\n",
       "      <th>artists</th>\n",
       "      <th>tempo</th>\n",
       "      <th>key</th>\n",
       "      <th>mode</th>\n",
       "      <th>loudness</th>\n",
       "      <th>instrumentalness</th>\n",
       "      <th>speechiness</th>\n",
       "      <th>acousticness</th>\n",
       "      <th>danceability</th>\n",
       "      <th>energy</th>\n",
       "      <th>liveness</th>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "  </thead>\n",
       "  <tbody>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>150</th>\n",
       "      <td>Carve</td>\n",
       "      <td>['Uli']</td>\n",
       "      <td>104.851</td>\n",
       "      <td>0</td>\n",
       "      <td>1</td>\n",
       "      <td>-13.338</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.744</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.451</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.67400</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.645</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.445</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.1510</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>157</th>\n",
       "      <td>Lazy Boi</td>\n",
       "      <td>['Uli']</td>\n",
       "      <td>87.921</td>\n",
       "      <td>1</td>\n",
       "      <td>1</td>\n",
       "      <td>-18.645</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.856</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.453</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.52100</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.298</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.460</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.4360</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>341</th>\n",
       "      <td>La Garconniere - Remasterizado</td>\n",
       "      <td>['Ignacio Corsini']</td>\n",
       "      <td>120.344</td>\n",
       "      <td>2</td>\n",
       "      <td>0</td>\n",
       "      <td>-23.485</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.822</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.423</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.99600</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.493</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.109</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.4000</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>569</th>\n",
       "      <td>Maullidos - Remasterizado</td>\n",
       "      <td>['Ignacio Corsini']</td>\n",
       "      <td>67.355</td>\n",
       "      <td>0</td>\n",
       "      <td>1</td>\n",
       "      <td>-18.780</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.973</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.490</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.99000</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.461</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.587</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.6830</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>754</th>\n",
       "      <td>Virgencita del Talar - Remasterizado</td>\n",
       "      <td>['Francisco Canaro']</td>\n",
       "      <td>69.038</td>\n",
       "      <td>1</td>\n",
       "      <td>1</td>\n",
       "      <td>-17.091</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.959</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.460</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.99300</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.443</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.265</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.1410</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>...</th>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>157832</th>\n",
       "      <td>Symphony No. 25 in G Minor, K. 183: IV. Allegr...</td>\n",
       "      <td>['Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart', 'Wiener Philharmon...</td>\n",
       "      <td>117.452</td>\n",
       "      <td>7</td>\n",
       "      <td>0</td>\n",
       "      <td>-19.721</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.739</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.447</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.82900</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.397</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.406</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.9350</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>163152</th>\n",
       "      <td>No More Pushing Joe Around</td>\n",
       "      <td>['Daniel Johnston']</td>\n",
       "      <td>64.927</td>\n",
       "      <td>0</td>\n",
       "      <td>1</td>\n",
       "      <td>-13.865</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.877</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.650</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.99300</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.579</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.391</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.1050</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>163477</th>\n",
       "      <td>Dreams Reoccurring</td>\n",
       "      <td>['Hüsker Dü']</td>\n",
       "      <td>196.847</td>\n",
       "      <td>9</td>\n",
       "      <td>1</td>\n",
       "      <td>-16.252</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.713</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.605</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.00441</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.164</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.844</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.2340</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>167139</th>\n",
       "      <td>Hypnotize</td>\n",
       "      <td>['The White Stripes']</td>\n",
       "      <td>184.103</td>\n",
       "      <td>9</td>\n",
       "      <td>1</td>\n",
       "      <td>-4.086</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.575</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.530</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.03550</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.191</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.990</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.0679</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>170056</th>\n",
       "      <td>Womb Sound With Mother's Heartbeat and Sleep P...</td>\n",
       "      <td>['Womb Sound']</td>\n",
       "      <td>68.631</td>\n",
       "      <td>10</td>\n",
       "      <td>0</td>\n",
       "      <td>-32.431</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.691</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.439</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.94400</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.284</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.501</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.1080</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "  </tbody>\n",
       "</table>\n",
       "<p>228 rows × 12 columns</p>\n",
       "</div>"
      ],
      "text/plain": [
       "                                                     name  \\\n",
       "150                                                 Carve   \n",
       "157                                              Lazy Boi   \n",
       "341                        La Garconniere - Remasterizado   \n",
       "569                             Maullidos - Remasterizado   \n",
       "754                  Virgencita del Talar - Remasterizado   \n",
       "...                                                   ...   \n",
       "157832  Symphony No. 25 in G Minor, K. 183: IV. Allegr...   \n",
       "163152                         No More Pushing Joe Around   \n",
       "163477                                 Dreams Reoccurring   \n",
       "167139                                          Hypnotize   \n",
       "170056  Womb Sound With Mother's Heartbeat and Sleep P...   \n",
       "\n",
       "                                                  artists    tempo  key  mode  \\\n",
       "150                                               ['Uli']  104.851    0     1   \n",
       "157                                               ['Uli']   87.921    1     1   \n",
       "341                                   ['Ignacio Corsini']  120.344    2     0   \n",
       "569                                   ['Ignacio Corsini']   67.355    0     1   \n",
       "754                                  ['Francisco Canaro']   69.038    1     1   \n",
       "...                                                   ...      ...  ...   ...   \n",
       "157832  ['Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart', 'Wiener Philharmon...  117.452    7     0   \n",
       "163152                                ['Daniel Johnston']   64.927    0     1   \n",
       "163477                                      ['Hüsker Dü']  196.847    9     1   \n",
       "167139                              ['The White Stripes']  184.103    9     1   \n",
       "170056                                     ['Womb Sound']   68.631   10     0   \n",
       "\n",
       "        loudness  instrumentalness  speechiness  acousticness  danceability  \\\n",
       "150      -13.338             0.744        0.451       0.67400         0.645   \n",
       "157      -18.645             0.856        0.453       0.52100         0.298   \n",
       "341      -23.485             0.822        0.423       0.99600         0.493   \n",
       "569      -18.780             0.973        0.490       0.99000         0.461   \n",
       "754      -17.091             0.959        0.460       0.99300         0.443   \n",
       "...          ...               ...          ...           ...           ...   \n",
       "157832   -19.721             0.739        0.447       0.82900         0.397   \n",
       "163152   -13.865             0.877        0.650       0.99300         0.579   \n",
       "163477   -16.252             0.713        0.605       0.00441         0.164   \n",
       "167139    -4.086             0.575        0.530       0.03550         0.191   \n",
       "170056   -32.431             0.691        0.439       0.94400         0.284   \n",
       "\n",
       "        energy  liveness  \n",
       "150      0.445    0.1510  \n",
       "157      0.460    0.4360  \n",
       "341      0.109    0.4000  \n",
       "569      0.587    0.6830  \n",
       "754      0.265    0.1410  \n",
       "...        ...       ...  \n",
       "157832   0.406    0.9350  \n",
       "163152   0.391    0.1050  \n",
       "163477   0.844    0.2340  \n",
       "167139   0.990    0.0679  \n",
       "170056   0.501    0.1080  \n",
       "\n",
       "[228 rows x 12 columns]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 8,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "# Only 13 songs out of almost 60,000 have an 'instrumentalness' and 'speechiness' of 0.4 or greater\n",
    "df[(df['instrumentalness'] >= 0.4) & (df['speechiness'] >= 0.4)]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": []
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": []
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": []
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "**Liveness:** Detects the presence of an audience in the recording. Higher liveness values represent an increased probability that the track was performed live. A value above 0.8 provides strong likelihood that the track is live."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 9,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
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       "      <th></th>\n",
       "      <th>name</th>\n",
       "      <th>artists</th>\n",
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       "      <th>key</th>\n",
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       "      <th>energy</th>\n",
       "      <th>liveness</th>\n",
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       "  </thead>\n",
       "  <tbody>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>770</th>\n",
       "      <td>Hottentot Potentate - Live</td>\n",
       "      <td>['Ethel Waters']</td>\n",
       "      <td>97.915</td>\n",
       "      <td>7</td>\n",
       "      <td>1</td>\n",
       "      <td>-13.495</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.000000</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.0717</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.929</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.496</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.177</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.1530</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>1014</th>\n",
       "      <td>All My Life - Live</td>\n",
       "      <td>['Ella Fitzgerald']</td>\n",
       "      <td>106.539</td>\n",
       "      <td>10</td>\n",
       "      <td>1</td>\n",
       "      <td>-20.662</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.696000</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.0419</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.986</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.661</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.108</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.1780</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>1028</th>\n",
       "      <td>Reefer Man - Live</td>\n",
       "      <td>['Baron Lee', 'The Blue Rhythm Band']</td>\n",
       "      <td>106.746</td>\n",
       "      <td>5</td>\n",
       "      <td>0</td>\n",
       "      <td>-12.751</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.000010</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.1940</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.987</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.848</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.260</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.1090</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>1033</th>\n",
       "      <td>Doin' The New Low Down - Live</td>\n",
       "      <td>['Bill \"Bojangles\" Robinson', 'Don Redman']</td>\n",
       "      <td>119.664</td>\n",
       "      <td>9</td>\n",
       "      <td>0</td>\n",
       "      <td>-17.579</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.004850</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.2560</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.951</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.719</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.607</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.1030</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>1050</th>\n",
       "      <td>Fifteen Minute Intermission - Live</td>\n",
       "      <td>['Cab Calloway &amp; His Orchestra']</td>\n",
       "      <td>168.532</td>\n",
       "      <td>10</td>\n",
       "      <td>0</td>\n",
       "      <td>-11.258</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.005090</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.2710</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.946</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.635</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.528</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.3130</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>...</th>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>168408</th>\n",
       "      <td>Arms Open Wide - Live In Australia/2009</td>\n",
       "      <td>['Hillsong UNITED']</td>\n",
       "      <td>169.930</td>\n",
       "      <td>2</td>\n",
       "      <td>1</td>\n",
       "      <td>-7.580</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.000000</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.0380</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.387</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.248</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.561</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.4720</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>168803</th>\n",
       "      <td>Indescribable - Live</td>\n",
       "      <td>['Kierra Sheard', 'BRL']</td>\n",
       "      <td>80.877</td>\n",
       "      <td>1</td>\n",
       "      <td>1</td>\n",
       "      <td>-8.652</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.000000</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.0424</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.116</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.274</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.399</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.0792</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>169494</th>\n",
       "      <td>Shut Up and Dance - Live Acoustic - 2015</td>\n",
       "      <td>['WALK THE MOON']</td>\n",
       "      <td>129.874</td>\n",
       "      <td>0</td>\n",
       "      <td>1</td>\n",
       "      <td>-4.548</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.000000</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.0466</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.151</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.820</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.615</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.2040</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>169541</th>\n",
       "      <td>Good Good Father - Live</td>\n",
       "      <td>['Casting Crowns']</td>\n",
       "      <td>147.636</td>\n",
       "      <td>8</td>\n",
       "      <td>1</td>\n",
       "      <td>-8.402</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.000000</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.0361</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.232</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.431</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.420</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.1880</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>169601</th>\n",
       "      <td>Stand by Me - Live at the Late Show with David...</td>\n",
       "      <td>['Tracy Chapman']</td>\n",
       "      <td>99.678</td>\n",
       "      <td>7</td>\n",
       "      <td>1</td>\n",
       "      <td>-10.148</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.000008</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.0398</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.797</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.816</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.144</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.4850</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "  </tbody>\n",
       "</table>\n",
       "<p>923 rows × 12 columns</p>\n",
       "</div>"
      ],
      "text/plain": [
       "                                                     name  \\\n",
       "770                            Hottentot Potentate - Live   \n",
       "1014                                   All My Life - Live   \n",
       "1028                                    Reefer Man - Live   \n",
       "1033                        Doin' The New Low Down - Live   \n",
       "1050                   Fifteen Minute Intermission - Live   \n",
       "...                                                   ...   \n",
       "168408            Arms Open Wide - Live In Australia/2009   \n",
       "168803                               Indescribable - Live   \n",
       "169494           Shut Up and Dance - Live Acoustic - 2015   \n",
       "169541                            Good Good Father - Live   \n",
       "169601  Stand by Me - Live at the Late Show with David...   \n",
       "\n",
       "                                            artists    tempo  key  mode  \\\n",
       "770                                ['Ethel Waters']   97.915    7     1   \n",
       "1014                            ['Ella Fitzgerald']  106.539   10     1   \n",
       "1028          ['Baron Lee', 'The Blue Rhythm Band']  106.746    5     0   \n",
       "1033    ['Bill \"Bojangles\" Robinson', 'Don Redman']  119.664    9     0   \n",
       "1050               ['Cab Calloway & His Orchestra']  168.532   10     0   \n",
       "...                                             ...      ...  ...   ...   \n",
       "168408                          ['Hillsong UNITED']  169.930    2     1   \n",
       "168803                     ['Kierra Sheard', 'BRL']   80.877    1     1   \n",
       "169494                            ['WALK THE MOON']  129.874    0     1   \n",
       "169541                           ['Casting Crowns']  147.636    8     1   \n",
       "169601                            ['Tracy Chapman']   99.678    7     1   \n",
       "\n",
       "        loudness  instrumentalness  speechiness  acousticness  danceability  \\\n",
       "770      -13.495          0.000000       0.0717         0.929         0.496   \n",
       "1014     -20.662          0.696000       0.0419         0.986         0.661   \n",
       "1028     -12.751          0.000010       0.1940         0.987         0.848   \n",
       "1033     -17.579          0.004850       0.2560         0.951         0.719   \n",
       "1050     -11.258          0.005090       0.2710         0.946         0.635   \n",
       "...          ...               ...          ...           ...           ...   \n",
       "168408    -7.580          0.000000       0.0380         0.387         0.248   \n",
       "168803    -8.652          0.000000       0.0424         0.116         0.274   \n",
       "169494    -4.548          0.000000       0.0466         0.151         0.820   \n",
       "169541    -8.402          0.000000       0.0361         0.232         0.431   \n",
       "169601   -10.148          0.000008       0.0398         0.797         0.816   \n",
       "\n",
       "        energy  liveness  \n",
       "770      0.177    0.1530  \n",
       "1014     0.108    0.1780  \n",
       "1028     0.260    0.1090  \n",
       "1033     0.607    0.1030  \n",
       "1050     0.528    0.3130  \n",
       "...        ...       ...  \n",
       "168408   0.561    0.4720  \n",
       "168803   0.399    0.0792  \n",
       "169494   0.615    0.2040  \n",
       "169541   0.420    0.1880  \n",
       "169601   0.144    0.4850  \n",
       "\n",
       "[923 rows x 12 columns]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 9,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "# Displaying all songs that are noted as being \"Live\" recordings, while having a \"liveness\" value that deviates significantly from Spotify's metric\n",
    "df[(df['name'].str.contains('- live', case=False)) & (df['liveness'] <= 0.5)]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "**ABOVE:** It's easy to see in the `liveness` column that quite a few values predict a song as being a studio recording when it was in fact recorded live. Some live recordings, like *Indescribable*, by Kierra Sheard and BRL, even have a `liveness` score approching 0, which implies the exact opposite of the setting in which the recording was actually made."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": []
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": []
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 10,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
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       "<table border=\"1\" class=\"dataframe\">\n",
       "  <thead>\n",
       "    <tr style=\"text-align: right;\">\n",
       "      <th></th>\n",
       "      <th>name</th>\n",
       "      <th>artists</th>\n",
       "      <th>tempo</th>\n",
       "      <th>key</th>\n",
       "      <th>mode</th>\n",
       "      <th>loudness</th>\n",
       "      <th>instrumentalness</th>\n",
       "      <th>speechiness</th>\n",
       "      <th>acousticness</th>\n",
       "      <th>danceability</th>\n",
       "      <th>energy</th>\n",
       "      <th>liveness</th>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "  </thead>\n",
       "  <tbody>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>14206</th>\n",
       "      <td>Creep</td>\n",
       "      <td>['Radiohead']</td>\n",
       "      <td>91.841</td>\n",
       "      <td>7</td>\n",
       "      <td>1</td>\n",
       "      <td>-9.935</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.000141</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.0369</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.01020</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.515</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.430</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.1290</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>14630</th>\n",
       "      <td>High And Dry</td>\n",
       "      <td>['Radiohead']</td>\n",
       "      <td>87.773</td>\n",
       "      <td>4</td>\n",
       "      <td>1</td>\n",
       "      <td>-11.782</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.017700</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.0257</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.07180</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.418</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.383</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.0896</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>14663</th>\n",
       "      <td>Fake Plastic Trees</td>\n",
       "      <td>['Radiohead']</td>\n",
       "      <td>73.552</td>\n",
       "      <td>2</td>\n",
       "      <td>1</td>\n",
       "      <td>-12.592</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.102000</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.0297</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.16700</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.454</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.229</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.2020</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>15029</th>\n",
       "      <td>Karma Police</td>\n",
       "      <td>['Radiohead']</td>\n",
       "      <td>74.807</td>\n",
       "      <td>7</td>\n",
       "      <td>1</td>\n",
       "      <td>-9.129</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.000092</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.0260</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.06260</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.360</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.505</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.1720</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>15053</th>\n",
       "      <td>No Surprises</td>\n",
       "      <td>['Radiohead']</td>\n",
       "      <td>76.426</td>\n",
       "      <td>5</td>\n",
       "      <td>1</td>\n",
       "      <td>-10.654</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.003610</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.0278</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.05770</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.255</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.393</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.1130</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>...</th>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>153859</th>\n",
       "      <td>Bloom</td>\n",
       "      <td>['Radiohead']</td>\n",
       "      <td>149.722</td>\n",
       "      <td>0</td>\n",
       "      <td>0</td>\n",
       "      <td>-7.596</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.884000</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.1570</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.62000</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.518</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.959</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.0831</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>165573</th>\n",
       "      <td>Bullet Proof ... I Wish I Was</td>\n",
       "      <td>['Radiohead']</td>\n",
       "      <td>80.915</td>\n",
       "      <td>7</td>\n",
       "      <td>1</td>\n",
       "      <td>-13.559</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.676000</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.0289</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.77600</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.450</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.359</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.0753</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>165690</th>\n",
       "      <td>Bones</td>\n",
       "      <td>['Radiohead']</td>\n",
       "      <td>101.473</td>\n",
       "      <td>2</td>\n",
       "      <td>1</td>\n",
       "      <td>-8.284</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.606000</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.0519</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.00154</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.336</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.705</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.1680</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>166088</th>\n",
       "      <td>Paranoid Android</td>\n",
       "      <td>['Radiohead']</td>\n",
       "      <td>163.709</td>\n",
       "      <td>5</td>\n",
       "      <td>1</td>\n",
       "      <td>-6.501</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.005910</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.0579</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.03770</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.251</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.848</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.0545</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>167119</th>\n",
       "      <td>The Gloaming</td>\n",
       "      <td>['Radiohead']</td>\n",
       "      <td>133.243</td>\n",
       "      <td>4</td>\n",
       "      <td>0</td>\n",
       "      <td>-13.370</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.110000</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.2780</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.10600</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.440</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.609</td>\n",
       "      <td>0.3820</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "  </tbody>\n",
       "</table>\n",
       "<p>108 rows × 12 columns</p>\n",
       "</div>"
      ],
      "text/plain": [
       "                                 name        artists    tempo  key  mode  \\\n",
       "14206                           Creep  ['Radiohead']   91.841    7     1   \n",
       "14630                    High And Dry  ['Radiohead']   87.773    4     1   \n",
       "14663              Fake Plastic Trees  ['Radiohead']   73.552    2     1   \n",
       "15029                    Karma Police  ['Radiohead']   74.807    7     1   \n",
       "15053                    No Surprises  ['Radiohead']   76.426    5     1   \n",
       "...                               ...            ...      ...  ...   ...   \n",
       "153859                          Bloom  ['Radiohead']  149.722    0     0   \n",
       "165573  Bullet Proof ... I Wish I Was  ['Radiohead']   80.915    7     1   \n",
       "165690                          Bones  ['Radiohead']  101.473    2     1   \n",
       "166088               Paranoid Android  ['Radiohead']  163.709    5     1   \n",
       "167119                   The Gloaming  ['Radiohead']  133.243    4     0   \n",
       "\n",
       "        loudness  instrumentalness  speechiness  acousticness  danceability  \\\n",
       "14206     -9.935          0.000141       0.0369       0.01020         0.515   \n",
       "14630    -11.782          0.017700       0.0257       0.07180         0.418   \n",
       "14663    -12.592          0.102000       0.0297       0.16700         0.454   \n",
       "15029     -9.129          0.000092       0.0260       0.06260         0.360   \n",
       "15053    -10.654          0.003610       0.0278       0.05770         0.255   \n",
       "...          ...               ...          ...           ...           ...   \n",
       "153859    -7.596          0.884000       0.1570       0.62000         0.518   \n",
       "165573   -13.559          0.676000       0.0289       0.77600         0.450   \n",
       "165690    -8.284          0.606000       0.0519       0.00154         0.336   \n",
       "166088    -6.501          0.005910       0.0579       0.03770         0.251   \n",
       "167119   -13.370          0.110000       0.2780       0.10600         0.440   \n",
       "\n",
       "        energy  liveness  \n",
       "14206    0.430    0.1290  \n",
       "14630    0.383    0.0896  \n",
       "14663    0.229    0.2020  \n",
       "15029    0.505    0.1720  \n",
       "15053    0.393    0.1130  \n",
       "...        ...       ...  \n",
       "153859   0.959    0.0831  \n",
       "165573   0.359    0.0753  \n",
       "165690   0.705    0.1680  \n",
       "166088   0.848    0.0545  \n",
       "167119   0.609    0.3820  \n",
       "\n",
       "[108 rows x 12 columns]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 10,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "df[df['artists'].str.contains('radiohead', case=False)]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": []
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": []
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": []
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "---\n",
    "---\n",
    "### Section 3\n",
    "#### Librosa Metrics"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 11,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "# Defining global sample rate, frame size, and hop length for incoming audio\n",
    "sr = 44100\n",
    "frame = 2048\n",
    "hop = 512"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 12,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "# Defining song filepaths for testing.\n",
    "james_blake_wav = '../songs_test/jamesblake_retrograde.wav'\n",
    "joey_wav = '../songs_test/joeybad_papertrails.wav'\n",
    "joji_attn_wav = '../songs_test/joji_attention.wav'"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 13,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "james_blake, _ = lib.load(james_blake_wav, sr=sr)\n",
    "joey, _ = lib.load(joey_wav, sr=sr)\n",
    "joji_attn, _ = lib.load(joji_attn_wav, sr=sr)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "**BELOW:** All tempos are measured in beats per minute. The \"actual tempos\" were calculated by importing each file into my DAW, or digital audio workstation (in my case, [Ableton Live](https://www.ableton.com/en/live/), wherein I can line up pulses to musical bars, then superimpose a metronome to verify tempo."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": []
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": []
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 14,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "tempos_df = pd.DataFrame()\n",
    "\n",
    "def tempo_comparisons(song, artist, actual_tempo, index, lib_file, start_bpm):    \n",
    "    tempos_df['Song'] = song\n",
    "    tempos_df['Artist'] = artist\n",
    "    tempos_df['Actual'] = actual_tempo\n",
    "    tempos_df['Spotify'] = df['tempo'][index]\n",
    "    tempos_df['Librosa (.tempo)'] = lib.beat.tempo(lib_file, sr=sr, hop_length=hop, aggregate=np.mean)\n",
    "    tempos_df['Librosa (.tempo with start bpm estimate)'] = lib.beat.tempo(lib_file, sr=sr, hop_length=hop, start_bpm=start_bpm, aggregate=np.mean)\n",
    "    \n",
    "    tempo, beats = lib.beat.beat_track(lib_file, sr=sr, hop_length=hop, units='time')\n",
    "    \n",
    "    tempos_df['Librosa (.beat_track)'] = tempo\n",
    "    tempos_df['Librosa (.beat_track * 2)'] = tempo * 2\n",
    "    return tempos_df"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 15,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/html": [
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       "    .dataframe tbody tr th:only-of-type {\n",
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       "    }\n",
       "\n",
       "    .dataframe thead th {\n",
       "        text-align: right;\n",
       "    }\n",
       "</style>\n",
       "<table border=\"1\" class=\"dataframe\">\n",
       "  <thead>\n",
       "    <tr style=\"text-align: right;\">\n",
       "      <th></th>\n",
       "      <th>Song</th>\n",
       "      <th>Artist</th>\n",
       "      <th>Actual</th>\n",
       "      <th>Spotify</th>\n",
       "      <th>Librosa (.tempo)</th>\n",
       "      <th>Librosa (.tempo with start bpm estimate)</th>\n",
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       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>0</th>\n",
       "      <td>NaN</td>\n",
       "      <td>NaN</td>\n",
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       "      <td>NaN</td>\n",
       "      <td>123.046875</td>\n",
       "      <td>77.133862</td>\n",
       "      <td>38.856908</td>\n",
       "      <td>77.713816</td>\n",
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      ],
      "text/plain": [
       "  Song Artist  Actual  Spotify  Librosa (.tempo)  \\\n",
       "0  NaN    NaN     NaN      NaN        123.046875   \n",
       "\n",
       "   Librosa (.tempo with start bpm estimate)  Librosa (.beat_track)  \\\n",
       "0                                 77.133862              38.856908   \n",
       "\n",
       "   Librosa (.beat_track * 2)  \n",
       "0                  77.713816  "
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 15,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "tempo_comparisons(song='Retrograde', artist='James Blake', actual_tempo=77.5, index=37264, lib_file=james_blake, start_bpm=70)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {},
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  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
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   "source": []
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  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 16,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "Retrograde actual tempo: 77.50\n",
      "Spotify measured tempo: 77.503\n",
      "Librosa measured tempo: [123.046875]\n",
      "Librosa measured tempo using .tempo() method with a starting estimate of 70: [77.13386194]\n",
      "Librosa measured tempo using .beat_track() method: 38.9\n",
      "Librosa measured tempo using .beat_track() method multiplied by two: 77.7\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "print('Retrograde actual tempo: 77.50')\n",
    "print(f\"Spotify measured tempo: {df['tempo'][37264]}\")\n",
    "print(f'Librosa measured tempo: {lib.beat.tempo(james_blake, sr=sr, hop_length=hop, aggregate=np.mean)}')\n",
    "print(f'Librosa measured tempo using .tempo() method with a starting estimate of 70: {lib.beat.tempo(james_blake, sr=sr, hop_length=hop, start_bpm=70, aggregate=np.mean)}')\n",
    "\n",
    "# Because the .beat_track() method returns two outputs, the tempo and an array of beat locations, saving to a variable first then only printing tempo\n",
    "james_tempo, beats = lib.beat.beat_track(james_blake, sr=sr, hop_length=hop, units='time')\n",
    "print(f'Librosa measured tempo using .beat_track() method: {round(james_tempo, 1)}')\n",
    "\n",
    "# Here, Librosa detected the tempo at half speed. If I multiply by two, I get the actual tempo of the song\n",
    "print(f'Librosa measured tempo using .beat_track() method multiplied by two: {round((james_tempo * 2), 1)}')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 17,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "Paper Trails actual tempo: 94\n",
      "Spotify measured tempo: 93.62\n",
      "Librosa measured tempo using .tempo() method: [123.046875]\n",
      "Librosa measured tempo using .tempo() method with a starting estimate of 70: [93.96306818]\n",
      "Librosa measured tempo using .beat_track() method: 94.0\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "print('Paper Trails actual tempo: 94')\n",
    "print(f\"Spotify measured tempo: {df['tempo'][56365]}\")\n",
    "print(f'Librosa measured tempo using .tempo() method: {lib.beat.tempo(joey, sr=sr, hop_length=hop, aggregate=np.mean)}')\n",
    "print(f'Librosa measured tempo using .tempo() method with a starting estimate of 70: {lib.beat.tempo(joey, sr=sr, hop_length=hop, start_bpm=90, aggregate=np.mean)}')\n",
    "\n",
    "joey_tempo, beats = lib.beat.beat_track(joey, sr=sr, hop_length=hop, units='time')\n",
    "print(f'Librosa measured tempo using .beat_track() method: {round(joey_tempo, 1)}')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": []
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
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   "source": []
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  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "---\n",
    "---\n",
    "### Section 4\n",
    "#### Glossary"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "- **Aliasing:** The introduction of unwanted digital distortion artifacts into an audio signal above the *Nyquist Frequency*.\n",
    "- **Decibel (dB):** Directly related to energy, the decibel is the standard unit of measure used to express the perceived loudness of a sound or audio. The decibel scale is logarithmic, in that an increase of 3dB represents a rough doubling of perceived loudness.\n",
    "- **Frame Size:** When analyzing audio digitally, we must first convert an analog waveform to a digital approximation. In doing so, we break that audio up into smaller chunks called frames or windows. The number of *samples* that constitute one of these windows is the *frame size*, which is generally a power of 2.\n",
    "- **Generation Loss:** The decrease in fidelity that corresponds with recordings being transferred to new media over time. Each step away from the original master tape represents some degree of generation loss, wherein the more transfers the recording has undergone, the lower the fidelity will be. This can include transfers from the mixdown tapes to the master tapes, master tapes to large-scale reproduction tapes, tapes to vinyl, tapes to digital formats (which necessarily lose fidelity due to digital media's inability to capture the infinite variability of analog waveforms.\n",
    "- **[Hann Function](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hann_function):** Also known as the *raised cosine window*, the Hann Function is a smoothing, windowing function especially useful for digital signal processing applications, wherein the amplitude of the beginning and end of a frame of audio samples is modulated by the function so that it approaches silence on either end. This is to prevent artifacts from being introduced into the signal, which can distort the digital representation of audio features.\n",
    "- **Hop Length:** The number of samples to by which to move each *frame* when processing audio digitally. This allows for overlapping *frames* which is important when dealing with digital audio.\n",
    "- **Key:** The group of notes that most accurately encapsulate a majority of the harmonic content in a piece of music. A piece in C Major, for example, may occasionally contain notes not germane to the key of C Major, but the piece will center around C as the fundamental pitch, and the majority of the piece will fit within the notes of the C Major scale.\n",
    "- **Mode:** A Greek name or Roman numeral signifying the tonality of a piece of music. Most commonly, and most simply, we can think about this as a basic classification of *major* (Ionian or $I$) or *minor* (Aeolian or $vi$), though there are in actuality seven distinct modes in relation to a given diatonic scale.\n",
    "- **[Nyquist Frequency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyquist_frequency):** Given by half of the sample rate of a digital audio file, the Nyquist Frequency represents the audio frequency at which digital distortion elements begin to appear in an audio signal. This phenomenon is known as *aliasing*, and special *anti-aliasing* filters must be applied to the digital signal above the Nyquist Frequency in order to keep the audio free from artifacts generated during the sampling process.\n",
    "- **Sample:** A digital \"snapshot\" approximating one minute portion of an audio wave.\n",
    "- **Sample Rate:** Measured in Hz, the sample rate determines how frequently, and thus, how many samples are taken to approximate the original analog waveform. For example, a common sample rate of 44.1kHz (44,100Hz) means we're taking 44,100 samples per second of audio.\n",
    "- **Scale Degree:** The Roman numeral representing a note's position in a given scale. The letter of the scale is always associated with that scale's *tonic*, or first note, with the degree increasing by one for each consecutive note. For example, in C Major, C is the first degree (or *tonic*), D is the second degree, E is the third degree, and so on.\n",
    "- **Tempo:** The pace of a musical piece, given in beats per minute.\n",
    "- **Tonic:** The first, dominant note in a given scale.\n",
    "- **Transient:** The initial attack of a sound. This could be the \"crack\" when a drumstick hits a snare drum, the pick attack of a note played on guitar, the spike of a beater hitting a bass drum head, etc. Transients comprise only the attack phase of a given sound, and are treated almost as instantaneous events, as their duration is usually below 40ms or so. Because they're loud, instantaneous events, transients are an effective way to visualize regularity in music - for example, when looking at a waveform of a pop song, you can often see transient spikes from the snare drum on beats two and four of each bar.\n",
    "- **Waveform:** A visual representation of an audio signal, with amplitude on the y-axis and time on the x-axis."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "---\n",
    "#### [Spotify](https://developer.spotify.com/documentation/web-api/reference/) Definitions"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "- **Acousticness:** A confidence measure from 0.0 to 1.0 of whether the track is acoustic.\n",
    "- **Danceability:** How suitable a track is for dancing based on a combination of musical elements including tempo, rhythm stability, beat strength, and overall regularity. A value of 0.0 is least danceable and 1.0 is most danceable. \n",
    "- **Energy:** A measure from 0.0 to 1.0 and represents a perceptual measure of intensity and activity. Typically, energetic tracks feel fast, loud, and noisy. For example, death metal has high energy, while a Bach prelude scores low on the scale. Perceptual features contributing to this attribute include dynamic range, perceived loudness, timbre, onset rate, and general entropy.\n",
    "- **Instrumentalness:** Predicts whether a track contains vocals. “Ooh” and “aah” sounds are treated as instrumental in this context. Rap or spoken word tracks are clearly “vocal”. The closer the instrumentalness value is to 1.0, the greater likelihood the track contains no vocal content. Values above 0.5 are intended to represent instrumental tracks, but confidence is higher as the value approaches 1.0.\n",
    "- **Liveness:** Detects the presence of an audience in the recording. Higher liveness values represent an increased probability that the track was performed live. A value above 0.8 provides strong likelihood that the track is live.\n",
    "- **Loudness:** The overall loudness of a track in decibels (dB). Loudness values are averaged across the entire track and are useful for comparing relative loudness of tracks. Loudness is the quality of a sound that is the primary psychological correlate of physical strength (amplitude). Values typically range between -60 and 0 dB.\n",
    "- **Popularity:** The popularity of a track is a value between 0 and 100, with 100 being the most popular. The popularity is calculated by algorithm and is based, in the most part, on the total number of plays the track has had and how recent those plays are. Generally speaking, songs that are being played a lot now will have a higher popularity than songs that were played a lot in the past. Duplicate tracks (e.g., the same track from a single and an album) are rated independently. Artist and album popularity is derived mathematically from track popularity.\n",
    "- **Speechiness:** Detects the presence of spoken words in a track. The more exclusively speech-like the recording (e.g., talk show, audio book, poetry), the closer to 1.0 the attribute value. Values above 0.66 describe tracks that are probably made entirely of spoken words. Values between 0.33 and 0.66 describe tracks that may contain both music and speech, either in sections or layered, including such cases as rap music. Values below 0.33 most likely represent music and other non-speech-like tracks.\n",
    "- **Valence:** A measure from 0.0 to 1.0 describing the musical positiveness conveyed by a track. Tracks with high valence sound more positive (e.g., happy, cheerful, euphoric), while tracks with low valence sound more negative (e.g., sad, depressed, angry)."
   ]
  },
  {
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   "execution_count": null,
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